{"id":228,"date":"2019-06-16T22:37:11","date_gmt":"2019-06-16T22:37:11","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/conspiracy-theories.eu\/?p=228"},"modified":"2019-06-16T22:45:04","modified_gmt":"2019-06-16T22:45:04","slug":"cognitive-biases","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"http:\/\/conspiracy-theories.eu\/de\/cognitive-biases\/","title":{"rendered":"Cognitive Biases"},"content":{"rendered":"<p>Click on the application to zoom and pan. You can use the mouse-wheel to navigate the image.<\/p>\n<ul style=\"list-style-type: square;\">\n<li><span style=\"text-decoration: underline; color: #000000;\"><a style=\"color: #000000; text-decoration: underline;\" href=\"http:\/\/cognitive-liberty.online\/cognitive-biases-codex.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Open a scrollable version of the application in full-screen modus<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><span class=\"su-lightbox\" data-mfp-src=\"https:\/\/cognitive-liberty.online\/cognitive-biases-zoomify\/list-of-cognitive-biases.html\" data-mfp-type=\"iframe\" data-mobile=\"yes\"><\/span><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Open Bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-f58aed86-6e6e-7b73-02cf-37b21cd71ff8\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> Cod<\/span>ex<\/span> in Lightbox<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" width=\"100%\" height=\"600px\" style=\"border: 0px #ffffff none;\" src=\"https:\/\/cognitive-liberty.online\/cognitive-biases-zoomify\/list-of-cognitive-biases.html\" name=\"myiFrame\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\" scrolling=\"auto\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2><\/h2>\n<hr \/>\n<h2><span id=\"Decision-making,_belief,_and_behavioral_biases\" class=\"mw-headline\">Decision-making, belief, and behavioral biases<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Many of these bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-88b32952-6303-3023-b9a7-b842190b16c3\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es aff<\/span>ect beli<span id=\"urn:enhancement-cc665564-7c3e-9967-0e48-357a4cd312d4\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ef for<\/span>mation, busi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-6e112cfa-182c-7115-dee2-afa3b1e0d567\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ness and<\/span> economic decisions, and human behavior in general.<\/p>\n<table class=\"wikitable\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th scope=\"col\">Name<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Description<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Ambiguity effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ambiguity_effect\">Ambiguity effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to avoid options for which missing information makes the prob<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e0579565-1cd8-9172-9b66-96658f866cbd\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ability see<\/span>m &#8220;unknown&#8221;.<sup id=\"cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Anchoring\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anchoring\">Anchoring<\/a> or focalism<\/td>\n<td>The tendency to rely too heavily, or &#8220;anchor&#8221;, on one trait or piece of information when making decisions (usually the first piece of information acquired on that subject).<sup id=\"cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-iverson2008_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-iverson2008-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Anthropocentric thinking\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anthropocentric_thinking\">Anthropocentric thinking<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to use human analogies as a basis for reasoning about other, less familiar, <span id=\"urn:local-text-annotation-engbnzk7xzra3hn6juw7gg492u1atkje\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-creative-work\">biological<\/span> phenomena.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Coley2012_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-Coley2012-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Anthropomorphism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anthropomorphism#Psychology_of_Anthropomorphism\">Anthropomorphism<\/a> or personification<\/td>\n<td>The tendency to characterize animals, obje<span id=\"urn:enhancement-b57ab770-c351-b919-a5af-996adf5da21e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">cts, an<\/span>d abstract concepts as possessing human-like traits, emotions, and intentions.<sup id=\"cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Attentional bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Attentional_bias\">Attentional bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency of perception to be affected by recurring thoughts.<sup id=\"cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-15\">[15<\/a><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-15\">]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Automation bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automation_bias\">Automation bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to depend excessively on automated systems which can lead to erroneous automated information overriding correct decisions.<sup id=\"cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-16\">[16<\/a><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-16\">]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Availability heuristic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Availability_heuristic\">Availability heuristic<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to overestimate the likelihood of events with greater &#8220;availability&#8221; in memory, which can be influenced by how rece<span id=\"urn:enhancement-4819934f-a012-1a92-f7e5-17993b49462b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">nt the<\/span> memories are or how unusual or emotionally charged they may be.<sup id=\"cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Availability cascade\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Availability_cascade\">Availability cascade<\/a><\/td>\n<td>A self-reinforcing process in which a <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Collective belief\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Collective_belief\">collective belief<\/a> gains more and more plausibility through its increasing repetition in publ<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e162abe7-faeb-6acc-af10-7bfffcceccdc\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ic discourse (or<\/span> &#8220;repeat something long enough and it will become true&#8221;).<sup id=\"cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Backfire effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backfire_effect\">Backfire effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The reaction to disconfirming evidence by strengthening one&#8217;s previous beli<span id=\"urn:enhancement-bd402591-b287-6c91-fdf3-64baaa5b56d2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">efs.<sup id=\"cite_ref-SannaSchwarz2002_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-SannaSchwarz2002-19\">[19<\/a><\/sup><\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-SannaSchwarz2002-19\">]<\/a> cf. <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Continued influence effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Continued_influence_effect\">Continued influence effect<\/a>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Bandwagon effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bandwagon_effect\">Bandwagon effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to do (or beli<span id=\"urn:enhancement-94b5a01c-d8a6-11df-2600-fc52de1296a3\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">eve) th<\/span>ings because many other people do (or beli<span id=\"urn:enhancement-4e380a8b-6de3-2688-5c83-fb40b5fb4205\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">eve) th<\/span>e same. Related to <a title=\"Groupthink\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Groupthink\">groupthink<\/a> and <a title=\"Herd behavior\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herd_behavior\">herd behavior<\/a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Base rate fallacy\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Base_rate_fallacy\">Base rate fallacy<\/a> or Base rate neglect<\/td>\n<td>The tendency to ignore base rate information (generic, general information) and focus on spec<span id=\"urn:enhancement-1d2fcdef-1abf-4558-1f4f-673c45d60ff8\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ific inf<\/span>ormation (information only pertaining to a certain case<span id=\"urn:enhancement-fc826eaf-b408-3d8a-a29d-ba56f8c25af4\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">).<sup id=\"cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-21\">[2<\/a><\/sup><\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-21\">1]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Belief bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Belief_bias\">Belief bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>An effect where someone&#8217;s evaluation of the logical strength of an <span id=\"urn:local-text-annotation-esr1gzyolldkzdud2nitat4yuvwegsll\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-creative-work\">argu<span id=\"urn:enhancement-4c8d1910-f954-d250-d7a2-7cbe75679fec\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ment <\/span><\/span>is bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-84ffa1be-637e-ddce-9f28-4dbce190af80\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ed by <\/span>the believability of the conclusion.<sup id=\"cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Ben Franklin effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ben_Franklin_effect\">Ben Franklin effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>A person who has performed a favor for someone is more likely to do another favor for that person than they would be if they had <i>received<\/i> a favor from that person.<sup id=\"cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Berkson's paradox\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Berkson%27s_paradox\">Berkson&#8217;s paradox<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to misinterpret statistical experiments involving conditional probabilities.<sup id=\"cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-24\">[24<\/a><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-24\">]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Bias blind spot\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bias_blind_spot\">Bias blind spot<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to see oneself as less bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-37464532-c045-43ac-bb5d-102d40ddfa43\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ed tha<\/span>n other people, or to be able to identify more cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-42700432-5c24-7535-770b-e0ed171ad51c\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es in <\/span>others than in oneself.<sup id=\"cite_ref-blindspot_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-blindspot-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Bystander effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bystander_effect\">Bystander effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to think that others will act in an emergency situation.<sup id=\"cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Choice-supportive bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Choice-supportive_bias\">Choice-supportive bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to remember one&#8217;s choices as better than they actually were.<sup id=\"cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Clustering illusion\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clustering_illusion\">Clustering illusion<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to overestimate the importance of small runs, streaks, or clus<span id=\"urn:enhancement-276b5a5d-ecb9-8fa1-5706-6af69d4f0df6\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ters in <\/span>large samples of random data (that is, seeing phantom patterns).<sup id=\"cite_ref-iverson2008_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-iverson2008-12\">[1<\/a><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-iverson2008-12\">2]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Confirmation bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Confirmation_bias\">Confirmation bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to search for, interpret, focus on and remember information in a way that confirms one&#8217;s preconceptions.<sup id=\"cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Congruence bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Congruence_bias\">Congruence bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to test<span id=\"urn:enhancement-71c43665-e528-b610-fb56-8f42ba314e80\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> hyp<\/span>otheses exclusively through direct testing, instead of testing possible alternative hypotheses.<sup id=\"cite_ref-iverson2008_12-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-iverson2008-12\">[12<\/a><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-iverson2008-12\">]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Conjunction fallacy\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conjunction_fallacy\">Conjunction fallacy<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to assume that spec<span id=\"urn:enhancement-4541e7f2-2cc3-ae46-95b6-967b86a57be3\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ific con<\/span>ditions are more probable than general ones.<sup id=\"cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Conservatism (belief revision)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conservatism_(belief_revision)\">Conservatism (belief revision)<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to <a title=\"Belief revision\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Belief_revision\">revise one&#8217;s belief<\/a> insufficiently when presented with new evidence.<sup id=\"cite_ref-HilbertPsychBull_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-HilbertPsychBull-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-edwards1968_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-edwards1968-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Continued influence effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Continued_influence_effect\">Continued influence effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to believe previously learned misinformation even after it has been corrected. Misinformation can still influence inferences one generates after a correction has occurred.<sup id=\"cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> cf. <i><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Backfire effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backfire_effect\">Backfire effect<\/a><\/i><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Contrast effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Contrast_effect\">Contrast effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The enhancement or reduction of a certain stimulus&#8217; perception when compared with a recently observed, contrasting object.<sup id=\"cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-33\">[33<\/a><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-33\">]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Shy Tory Factor\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shy_Tory_Factor\">Courtesy bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to give an opin<span id=\"urn:enhancement-c907ea50-a5f5-0d04-91fe-96d12ed2f0d0\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ion tha<\/span>t is more socially correct than one&#8217;s true opin<span id=\"urn:enhancement-8360aede-6db5-a3ba-cf60-f4c1d937f087\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ion, so<\/span> as to avoid offending anyone.<sup id=\"cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Curse of knowledge\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Curse_of_knowledge\">Curse of knowledge<\/a><\/td>\n<td>When better-informed people find it extremely difficult to think about problems from the perspective of lesser-informed people.<sup id=\"cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-35\">[35<\/a><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-35\">]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Declinism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Declinism\">Declinism<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The predisposition to view the past favorably (<a title=\"Rosy retrospection\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rosy_retrospection\">rosy retrospection<\/a>) and future negatively.<sup id=\"cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-36\">[36<\/a><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-36\">]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Decoy effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decoy_effect\">Decoy effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Preferences for either option A or B change in favor of option B when option C is presented, which is completely dominated by option B (inferior in all respects) and partially dominated by option A.<sup id=\"cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Default effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Default_effect\">Default effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>When given a choice between several options, the tendency to favor the default one.<sup id=\"cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Denomination effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Denomination_effect\">Denomination effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to spend more money when it is denominated in small amounts (e.g., coins) rather than large amounts (e.g., bills).<sup id=\"cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-39\">[3<\/a><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-39\">9]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Disposition effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disposition_effect\">Disposition effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to sell an asset that has accumulated in value and resist selling an asset that has declined in value.<sup id=\"cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-40\">[40<\/a><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-40\">]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Distinction bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distinction_bias\">Distinction bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to view two options as more dissimilar when evaluating them simultaneously than when evaluating them separately.<sup id=\"cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Dunning\u2013Kruger effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect\">Dunning\u2013Kruger effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency for unskilled individuals to overestimate their own ability and the tendency for experts to underestimate their own ability.<sup id=\"cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Duration neglect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Duration_neglect\">Duration neglect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The neglect of the duration of an episode in determining its value.<sup id=\"cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-43\">[43<\/a><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-43\">]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Empathy gap\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Empathy_gap\">Empathy gap<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to underestimate the infl<span id=\"urn:enhancement-586ed68c-e67a-e686-c717-020018fae596\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">uence or <\/span>strength of feelings, in either oneself or others.<sup id=\"cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Endowment effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Endowment_effect\">Endowment effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency for people to demand much more to give up an object than they would be willing to pay to acquire it.<sup id=\"cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span id=\"[[Exaggerated]]_expectation\"><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Exaggerated\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exaggerated\">Exaggerated<\/a> expectation<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Based on the estimates,<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\">[<i><a title=\"Wikipedia:Please clarify\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Please_clarify\"><span title=\"The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (September 2017)\">clarification needed<\/span><\/a><\/i><\/sup>] real-world evid<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a16d5102-a20f-db6c-cf15-e0c55f35cada\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ence tur<\/span>ns out to be less extreme than our expectations (conditionally inverse of the conservatism bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-974a21d0-8b5d-9bd9-d908-82bd9d490a88\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">).<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\">[<i><a title=\"Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources\"><span title=\"The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (November 2013)\">u<\/span>nreliable source?<\/a><\/i><\/sup><\/span>]<sup id=\"cite_ref-HilbertPsychBull_5-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-HilbertPsychBull-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Experimenter's bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Experimenter%27s_bias\">Experimenter&#8217;s<\/a> or <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Expectation bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expectation_bias\">expectation bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency for experimenters to beli<span id=\"urn:enhancement-5eaf6c21-5199-ec9b-28f7-ca42890b071e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">eve, ce<\/span>rtify, and publish data that agree with their expectations for the outcome of an expe<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d3e73bf2-b1f5-336f-b24e-f5c9452e7ffd\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">riment, an<\/span>d to disbelieve, discard, or downgrade the corresponding weightings for data that appear to conflict with those expectations.<sup id=\"cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-47\">[47<\/a><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-47\">]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Focusing effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Focusing_effect\">Focusing effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to place too much importance on one aspect of an event.<sup id=\"cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-48\">[48<\/a><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-48\">]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Forer effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forer_effect\">Forer effect<\/a> or <a title=\"Barnum effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barnum_effect\">Barnum effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The observation that individuals will give high accu<span id=\"urn:enhancement-08f407a4-d7ce-9974-639f-8f6df5dbbe45\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">racy rat<\/span>ings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide rang<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a573e6fe-d02d-4b21-0efe-7a307fe5e516\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">e of <\/span>people. This effect can provide a partial expl<span id=\"urn:enhancement-62bd6de6-73fd-40f8-ed0d-c23df0df2ddb\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">anation for<\/span> the widespread acceptance of some beli<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d066fc6e-1996-7d31-f479-d9fb063846bd\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">efs and<\/span> practices, such as astrology, fortune telling, graphology, and some types of personality tests.<sup id=\"cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-49\">[49<\/a><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-49\">]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Form function attribution bias<\/td>\n<td>In <a title=\"Human\u2013robot interaction\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human%E2%80%93robot_interaction\">human\u2013robot interaction<\/a>, the tendency of people to make systematic errors when interacting with a robot. People may base their expectations and perceptions of a robot on its appearance (form) and attribute functions which do not necessarily mirror the true functions of the robot.<sup id=\"cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Framing effect (psychology)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Framing_effect_(psychology)\">Framing effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Drawing different conclusions from the same information, depending on how that information is presented.<sup id=\"cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr id=\"Frequency_illusion\">\n<td>Frequency illusion<\/td>\n<td>The illu<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e215fd73-2707-9bff-49b2-bf0fb17b9b59\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">sion in <\/span>which a word, a name, or other thing that has recently come to one&#8217;s attention suddenly seems to appear with improbable frequency shortly afterwards (not to be confused with the <a title=\"Recency illusion\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recency_illusion\">recency illusion<\/a> or <a title=\"Selection bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Selection_bias\">selection bias<\/a>).<sup id=\"cite_ref-zwicky_52-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-zwicky-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup> This illu<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d4aacf42-929e-9804-bb8b-7ad08a30a531\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">sion is <\/span>sometimes referred to as the Baader-Meinhof phenomenon.<sup id=\"cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Functional fixedness\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_fixedness\">Functional fixedness<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.<sup id=\"cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Gambler's fallacy\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gambler%27s_fallacy\">Gambler&#8217;s fallacy<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to think that future prob<span id=\"urn:enhancement-2e68ea0b-d4c1-9389-fdfe-d9ef4d69caa8\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">abilities are<\/span> altered by past events, when in reality they are unchanged. The fallacy arises from an erroneous conceptualization of the <a title=\"Law of large numbers\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Law_of_large_numbers\">law of large numbers<\/a>. For example, &#8220;I&#8217;ve flipped heads with this coin five times consecutively, so the chance of tails coming out on the sixth flip is much greater than heads.&#8221;<sup id=\"cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Hard\u2013easy effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hard%E2%80%93easy_effect\">Hard\u2013easy effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Based on a specific level of task difficulty, the confidence in judgments is too conservative and not extreme enough.<sup id=\"cite_ref-HilbertPsychBull_5-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-HilbertPsychBull-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-58\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Hindsight bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hindsight_bias\">Hindsight bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Sometimes called the &#8220;I-knew-it-all-along&#8221; effect, the tendency to see past events as being predictable<sup id=\"cite_ref-hindsight_59-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-hindsight-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup> at the time those events happened.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Hostile attribution bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hostile_attribution_bias\">Hostile attribution bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The &#8220;hostile attribution bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-15d9a666-465c-6da9-340f-2b67f787ad59\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">&#8221; is<\/span> the tendency to interpret others&#8217; behaviors as having hostile intent, even when the behavior is ambi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-c5eb80ac-d43a-bdd0-6bef-cd1702554173\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">guous or <\/span>benign.<sup id=\"cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Hot-hand fallacy\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hot-hand_fallacy\">Hot-hand fallacy<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The &#8220;hot-hand fallacy&#8221; (also known as the &#8220;hot hand phenomenon&#8221; or &#8220;hot hand&#8221;) is the belief that a person who has experienced success with a random event has a greater chance of further success in additional attempts.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Hyperbolic discounting\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hyperbolic_discounting\">Hyperbolic discounting<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Discounting is the tendency for people to have a stronger preference for more immediate payoffs relative to later payoffs. Hyperbolic discounting leads to choices that are inconsistent over time \u2013 people make choices today that their future selves would prefer not to have made, despite using the same reasoning.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Laibson1997QJE_61-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-Laibson1997QJE-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup> Also known as current moment bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-c93a99c5-76fa-e956-5867-b1e97dcd8749\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">, pr<\/span>esent-bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-c43d4fca-6a0b-b165-c4bb-7a9579252773\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">, an<\/span>d related to <a title=\"Dynamic inconsistency\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamic_inconsistency\">Dynamic inconsistency<\/a>. A good example of this: a study showed that when making food choices for the coming week, 74% of participants chose fruit, whereas when the food choice was for the current day, 70% chose chocolate.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Identifiable victim effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identifiable_victim_effect\">Identifiable victim effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to respond more strongly to a single identified person at risk than to a large group of people at risk.<sup id=\"cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"IKEA effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IKEA_effect\">IKEA effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency for people to place a disproportionately high value on objects that they partially assembled themselves, such as furniture from <a title=\"IKEA\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IKEA\">IKEA<\/a>, regardless of the quality of the end result.<sup id=\"cite_ref-63\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-63\">[63]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Illicit transference\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Illicit_transference\">Illicit transference<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Occurs when a term in the distributive (referring to every member of a class) and collective (referring to the class itself as a whole) sense are treated as equivalent. The two variants of this fallacy are the <a title=\"Fallacy of composition\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fallacy_of_composition\">fallacy of composition<\/a> and the <a title=\"Fallacy of division\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fallacy_of_division\">fallacy of division<\/a>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Illusion of control\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Illusion_of_control\">Illusion of control<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to overestimate one&#8217;s degree of influence over other external events.<sup id=\"cite_ref-64\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Illusion of validity\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Illusion_of_validity\">Illusion of validity<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Belief that our judg<span id=\"urn:enhancement-8d11f990-9adf-2e96-6258-ecdedbd4dd93\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ments are<\/span> accurate, especially when available information is consistent or inter-correlated.<sup id=\"cite_ref-65\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Illusory correlation\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Illusory_correlation\">Illusory correlation<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Inaccurately perceiving a relationship between two unrelated events.<sup id=\"cite_ref-h_and_b_66-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-h_and_b-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-ReferenceB_67-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-ReferenceB-67\">[67]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Illusory truth effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Illusory_truth_effect\">Illusory truth effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>A tendency to believe that a stat<span id=\"urn:enhancement-11366c0a-e7d8-9ee4-fcc8-5b6463ec36de\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ement is <\/span>true if it is <a title=\"Fluency heuristic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fluency_heuristic\">easier to process<\/a>, or if it has been <a title=\"Processing fluency\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Processing_fluency\">stated multiple times<\/a>, regardless of its actual veracity. These are specific cases of <a title=\"Truthiness\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Truthiness\">truthiness<\/a>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Impact bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Impact_bias\">Impact bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to overestimate the length or the intensity of the impact of future feeling stat<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d6f17a59-ad93-25f2-9bb7-2a9e2c9b331b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es.<sup id=\"cite_ref-temporal_68-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-temporal-68\">[68<\/a><\/sup><\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-temporal-68\">]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Information bias (psychology)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_bias_(psychology)\">Information bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to seek information even when it cannot affect action.<sup id=\"cite_ref-69\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-69\">[69<\/a><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-69\">]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Insensitivity to sample size\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Insensitivity_to_sample_size\">Insensitivity to sample size<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to under-expect variation in small samples.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Irrational escalation\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Irrational_escalation\">Irrational escalation<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The phenomenon where people justify increased investment in a decision, based on the cumulative prior investment, despite new evidence suggesting that the decision was probably wrong. Also known as the sunk cost fallacy.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Law of the instrument\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Law_of_the_instrument\">Law of the instrument<\/a><\/td>\n<td>An over-reliance on a familiar tool or methods, ignoring or under-valuing alternative approaches. &#8220;If all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail.&#8221;<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Less-is-better effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Less-is-better_effect\">Less-is-better effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to prefer a smaller set to a larger set judged separately, but not jointly.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Look-elsewhere effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Look-elsewhere_effect\">Look-elsewhere effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>An apparently statistically significant observation may have actually arisen by chance because of the size of the parameter space to be searched.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Loss aversion\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Loss_aversion\">Loss aversion<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The disu<span id=\"urn:enhancement-4c54bfd2-15b9-e879-241a-b229bd3a3547\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tility of <\/span>giving up an obje<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e0337071-0da6-e872-9894-a43d449d2283\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ct is <\/span>greater than the util<span id=\"urn:enhancement-7bb80222-321e-0eb2-899d-80df77ad29be\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ity ass<\/span>ociated with acquiring it.<sup id=\"cite_ref-70\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-70\">[70]<\/a><\/sup> (see also <a title=\"Sunk cost\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sunk_cost\">Sunk cost effects<\/a> and endowment effect).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Mere exposure effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mere_exposure_effect\">Mere exposure effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to express undue liking for things merely because of familiarity with them.<sup id=\"cite_ref-71\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-71\">[71]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Money illusion\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Money_illusion\">Money illusion<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to concentrate on the nominal value (face value) of money rather than its value in terms of purchasing power.<sup id=\"cite_ref-72\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-72\">[72<\/a><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-72\">]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Moral credential\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moral_credential\">Moral credential effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency of a track record of non-prejudice to increase subsequent prejudice.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Negativity bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Negativity_bias\">Negativity bias<\/a> or Negativity effect<\/td>\n<td>Psychological phenomenon by which humans have a greater <a title=\"Recall (memory)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recall_(memory)\">recall<\/a> of unpleasant memories compared with positive memories.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Haizlip_73-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-Haizlip-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-TroPLoS_74-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-TroPLoS-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> (see also actor-observer bias, <a title=\"Group attribution error\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Group_attribution_error\">gr<\/a><a title=\"Group attribution error\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Group_attribution_error\">oup attribution error<\/a>, positivity effect, and <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Negativity effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Negativity_effect\">negativity effect<\/a>).<sup id=\"cite_ref-Sutherland_2007_138\u2013139_75-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-Sutherland_2007_138\u2013139-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Neglect of probability\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neglect_of_probability\">Neglect of probability<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to completely disregard prob<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e37a0b10-2955-581e-14c7-4a32b1bcc54a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ability whe<\/span>n making a decision under uncertainty.<sup id=\"cite_ref-76\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-76\">[76<\/a><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-76\">]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Normalcy bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Normalcy_bias\">Normalcy bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The refusal to plan for, or react to, a disaster which has never happened before.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Not invented here\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Not_invented_here\">Not invented here<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Aversion to contact with or use of products, research, standards, or know<span id=\"urn:enhancement-f59cded0-cf77-a20d-6e06-b5f70acda082\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ledge dev<\/span>eloped outside a group. Related to <a title=\"IKEA effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IKEA_effect\">IKEA effect<\/a>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Observer-expectancy effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Observer-expectancy_effect\">Observer-expectancy effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>When a rese<span id=\"urn:enhancement-6fe9ba6a-6f3e-7826-a1ef-fc10cb904063\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">archer exp<\/span>ects a given result and therefore unconsciously manipulates an experiment or misinterprets data in order to find it (see also <a title=\"Subject-expectancy effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subject-expectancy_effect\">subject-expectancy effect<\/a>).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Omission bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Omission_bias\">Omission bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to judge harmful actions (commissions) as worse, or less moral, than equally harmful inactions (omissions).<sup id=\"cite_ref-77\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-77\">[77]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Optimism bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optimism_bias\">Optimism bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to be over-optimistic, overestimating favorable and pleasing outcomes (see also <a title=\"Wishful thinking\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wishful_thinking\">wishful thinking<\/a>, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Valence effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Valence_effect\">valence effect<\/a>, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Valence effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Valence_effect\">positive outcome bias<\/a>).<sup id=\"cite_ref-78\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-78\">[78]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-79\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-79\">[79]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Ostrich effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ostrich_effect\">Ostrich effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Ignoring an obvious (negative) situation.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Outcome bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outcome_bias\">Outcome bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to judge a decision by its eventual outcome instead of based on the quality of the decision at the time it was made.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Overconfidence effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overconfidence_effect\">Overconfidence effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Excessive confidence in one&#8217;s own answers to questions. For example, for certain types of questions, answers that people rate as &#8220;99% certain&#8221; turn out to be wrong 40% of the time.<sup id=\"cite_ref-HilbertPsychBull_5-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-HilbertPsychBull-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-80\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-80\">[80]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-81\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-81\">[81]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-82\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-82\">[82]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Pareidolia\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pareidolia\">Pareidolia<\/a><\/td>\n<td>A vague and random stim<span id=\"urn:enhancement-fedf226f-c0b6-847d-d98c-5211105f8bcf\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ulus (of<\/span>te<span id=\"urn:enhancement-7baa4d3e-9dad-65c4-aac2-da230b858297\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">n an <\/span>image or sound) is perceived as significant, e.g., seeing images of animals or faces in clouds, the <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Man in the moon\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Man_in_the_moon\">man in the moon<\/a>, and hearing non-existent <a title=\"Hidden message\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hidden_message\">hidden messages<\/a> on <a title=\"Backmasking\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backmasking\">records played in reverse<\/a>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Pessimism bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pessimism_bias\">Pessimism bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency for some people, especially those suffering from <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Psychological depression\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Psychological_depression\">depression<\/a>, to overestimate the likelihood of negative things happening to them.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Placebo effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Placebo_effect\">Placebo effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The beli<span id=\"urn:enhancement-bde56000-8344-9349-ac9d-68333fb0e3d3\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ef tha<\/span>t a medication works\u2014even if merely a placebo.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Planning fallacy\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Planning_fallacy\">Planning fallacy<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to underestimate task-completion times.<sup id=\"cite_ref-temporal_68-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-temporal-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Post-purchase rationalization\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Post-purchase_rationalization\">Post-purchase rationalization<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to persuade oneself through rati<span id=\"urn:enhancement-2b8fd025-1d14-fc47-88d6-a8eb0be85267\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">onal arg<\/span>u<span id=\"urn:enhancement-91879255-7787-fb92-d98e-42d8b1ed0f1c\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ment tha<\/span>t a purchase was good value.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Pro-innovation bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pro-innovation_bias\">Pro-innovation bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to have an excessive optimism towards an invention or innovation&#8217;s usef<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a8528351-ac68-7db2-6856-d84078aa3893\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ulness thr<\/span>oughout society, while ofte<span id=\"urn:enhancement-bdd88b72-ce23-b029-3244-8b3e506bc88a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">n fai<\/span>ling to identify its limitations and weaknesses.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Projection bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Projection_bias\">Projection bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to overestimate how much our future selves share one&#8217;s current preferences, thoughts and values, thus leading to sub-optimal choices.<sup id=\"cite_ref-83\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-83\">[83]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-84\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-84\">[84]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-TroPLoS_74-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-TroPLoS-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Pseudocertainty effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pseudocertainty_effect\">Pseudocertainty effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to make risk-averse choices if the expected outcome is posi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-ef9bb680-7d26-ddb8-78aa-2ae87b32dd3c\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tive, bu<\/span>t make risk-seeking choices to avoid negative outcomes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-85\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-85\">[85]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Reactance (psychology)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reactance_(psychology)\">Reactance<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The urge to do the opposite of what someone wants you to do out of a need to resist a perceived attempt to constrain your freedom of choice (see also <a title=\"Reverse psychology\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reverse_psychology\">Reverse psychology<\/a>).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Reactive devaluation\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reactive_devaluation\">Reactive devaluation<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Devaluing proposals only because they purportedly originated with an adversary.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Recency illusion\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recency_illusion\">Recency illusion<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The illu<span id=\"urn:enhancement-756d706b-601c-3574-2809-4199a4237728\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">sion tha<\/span>t a phenomenon one has noticed only recently is itself rece<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e2c14cad-5199-8add-1d0a-0fcd6a80f6fd\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">nt. Of<\/span>ten used to refer to linguistic phenomena; the illu<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e5b7e26a-d6d1-f03a-b8af-72d73eca24da\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">sion tha<\/span>t a word or language usage that one has noticed only recently is an innovation when it is in fact long-established (see also <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#Frequency_illusion\">frequency illusion<\/a>).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span id=\"Regressive_bias\">Regressive bias<\/span><\/td>\n<td>A certain stat<span id=\"urn:enhancement-beb1c551-e328-7d34-14bd-8c7b9d2932d6\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">e of <\/span>mind wherein high<span id=\"urn:enhancement-84382aa1-2036-f0f0-127f-84b4ae074dd2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> val<\/span>ues and high<span id=\"urn:enhancement-97ec1484-f404-4b87-6092-f38a5ce9d83c\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> lik<\/span>elihoods are overestimated while low values and low likelihoods are underestimated.<sup id=\"cite_ref-HilbertPsychBull_5-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-HilbertPsychBull-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-ReferenceA_86-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-ReferenceA-86\">[86]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-Experimental_Psychology_1523_87-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-Experimental_Psychology_1523-87\">[87]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\">[<i><a title=\"Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources\"><span title=\"The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (November 2013)\">unreliable source?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Restraint bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Restraint_bias\">Restraint bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to overestimate one&#8217;s ability to show restraint in the face of temptation.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Rhyme as reason effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rhyme_as_reason_effect\">Rhyme as reason effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Rhyming stat<span id=\"urn:enhancement-66b93e92-ac00-df88-7fdc-ddff1684deaa\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ements are<\/span> perceived as more truthful. A famous example being used in the O.J Simpson trial with the defense&#8217;s use of the phrase &#8220;If the gloves don&#8217;t fit, then you must acquit.&#8221;<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Risk compensation\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_compensation\">Risk compensation<\/a> \/ Peltzman effect<\/td>\n<td>The tendency to take greater risks when perceived safety increases.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Selection bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Selection_bias\">Selection bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to notice something more when something causes us to be more aware of it, such as when we buy a car, we tend to notice similar cars more often than we did before. They are not suddenly more common \u2013 we just are noticing them more. Also called the Observational Selection Bias.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Selective perception\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Selective_perception\">Selective perception<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency for expectations to affect perception.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Semmelweis reflex\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semmelweis_reflex\">Semmelweis reflex<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to reject new evid<span id=\"urn:enhancement-2e2f014a-4084-b57b-4f93-912c2f541a96\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ence tha<\/span>t contradicts a paradigm.<sup id=\"cite_ref-edwards1968_31-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-edwards1968-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Sexual overperception bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sexual_overperception_bias\">Sexual overperception bias<\/a> \/ sexual underperception bias<\/td>\n<td>The tendency to over-\/underestimate sexual interest of another person in oneself.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Social comparison bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_comparison_bias\">Social comparison bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency, when making decisions, to favour potential candidates who don&#8217;t compete with one&#8217;s own particular strengths.<sup id=\"cite_ref-88\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-88\">[88]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Social desirability bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_desirability_bias\">Social desirability bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to over-report socially desirable characteristics or behaviours in oneself and under-report socially undesirable characteristics or behaviours.<sup id=\"cite_ref-89\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-89\">[89]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Status quo bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Status_quo_bias\">Status quo bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to like things to stay relatively the same (see also <a title=\"Loss aversion\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Loss_aversion\">loss aversion<\/a>, <a title=\"Endowment effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Endowment_effect\">endowment effect<\/a>, and <a title=\"System justification\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_justification\">system justification<\/a>).<sup id=\"cite_ref-90\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-90\">[90]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-91\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-91\">[91]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Stereotyping\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stereotyping\">Stereotyping<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Expecting a member of a grou<span id=\"urn:enhancement-8ca1f3f6-b300-11bb-2513-d4bd9980e41b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">p to <\/span>have certain characteristics without having actual information about that individual.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Subadditivity effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subadditivity_effect\">Subadditivity effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to judge prob<span id=\"urn:enhancement-f405202f-1ac6-d3db-e368-a2e8ede17d72\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ability of <\/span>the whole to be less than the prob<span id=\"urn:enhancement-338af482-d55d-47f9-9137-dab6404bedcc\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">abilities of <\/span>the parts.<sup id=\"cite_ref-92\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-92\">[92<\/a><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-92\">]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Subjective validation\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subjective_validation\">Subjective validation<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Perception that something is true if a subj<span id=\"urn:enhancement-2d61a0e2-a245-a18b-8c30-dcbd6b7f500d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ect&#8217;s b<\/span>eli<span id=\"urn:enhancement-40cb0d4f-60fd-bf94-0f00-714468c08a66\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ef dem<\/span>ands it to be true. Also assigns perceived connections between coincidences.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Surrogation\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surrogation\">Surrogation<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Losing sight of the stra<span id=\"urn:enhancement-3250042a-488b-2145-b859-a2a1e0798b1b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tegic con<\/span>struct that a measure is intended to represent, and subsequently acting as though the measure is the construct of interest.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Survivorship bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Survivorship_bias\">Survivorship bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Concentrating on the people or things that &#8220;survived&#8221; some process and inadvertently overlooking those that didn&#8217;t because of their lack of visibility.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Time-saving bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time-saving_bias\">Time-saving bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Underestimations of the time that could be saved (or lost) when increasing (or decreasing) from a relatively low speed and overestimations of the time that could be saved (or lost) when increasing (or decreasing) from a relatively high speed.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Third-person effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Third-person_effect\">Third-person effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Belief that mass communicated media messages have a greater effect on others than on themselves.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Parkinson's law of triviality\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parkinson%27s_law_of_triviality\">Parkinson&#8217;s law of triviality<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to give disproportionate weight to triv<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a1ea08ed-96b4-a968-8e46-158f975c95b2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ial iss<\/span>ues. Also known as bikeshedding, this bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-47ee6db3-1a7e-0144-3c32-3a5a18bd9cb3\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> exp<\/span>lains why an organization may avoid specialized or complex subjects, such as the design of a nuclear reactor, and instead focus on something easy to grasp or rewarding to the average participant, such as the design of an adjacent bike shed.<sup id=\"cite_ref-93\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-93\">[93]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Unit bias<\/td>\n<td>The standard suggested amount of consumption (e.g., food serving size) is perceived to be appropriate, and a person would consume it all even if it is too much for this particular person.<sup id=\"cite_ref-94\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-94\">[94]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Weber\u2013Fechner law\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weber%E2%80%93Fechner_law\">Weber\u2013Fechner law<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Difficulty in comparing smal<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d9b179f9-e9b7-f934-7658-cd932387b1fb\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">l dif<\/span>ferences in large quantities.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Well travelled road effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Well_travelled_road_effect\">Well travelled road effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Underestimation of the duration taken to traverse oft-traveled routes and overestimation of the duration taken to traverse less familiar routes.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Women are wonderful effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Women_are_wonderful_effect\">Women are wonderful effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>A tendency to associate more positive attributes with women than with men.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Zero-risk bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zero-risk_bias\">Zero-risk bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Preference for reducing a smal<span id=\"urn:enhancement-2edfed18-ff31-c774-208a-2124c1bf639f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">l ris<\/span>k to zero over a greater reduction in a larger risk.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Zero-sum thinking\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zero-sum_thinking\">Zero-sum bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>A bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-953c5bf7-9abd-5b75-7a03-60125199a671\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> whe<\/span>reby a situation is incorrectly perceived to be like a zero-sum game (i.e., one person gains at the expense of another).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><span id=\"Social_biases\" class=\"mw-headline\">Social biases<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Most of these biases are labeled as <a title=\"Attribution bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Attribution_bias\">attributional biases<\/a>.<\/p>\n<table class=\"wikitable\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th scope=\"col\">Name<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Description<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Actor-observer bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Actor-observer_bias\">Actor-observer bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency for explanations of other individuals&#8217; behaviors to overemphasize the infl<span id=\"urn:enhancement-7a354f71-8deb-618e-b3f0-d2106a25b0c1\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">uence of <\/span>their personality and underemphasize the infl<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a242424d-3375-f0ec-4039-a65b9757e1d9\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">uence of <\/span>their situation (see also <a title=\"Fundamental attribution error\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fundamental_attribution_error\">Fundamental attribution error<\/a>), and for explanations of one&#8217;s own behaviors to do the opposite (that is, to overemphasize the infl<span id=\"urn:enhancement-4b6b445a-dd7d-17f0-a088-312d59a2e185\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">uence of <\/span>our situation and underemphasize the infl<span id=\"urn:enhancement-ed5196da-431e-9a67-a2cc-1f28cdeb6ecc\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">uence of <\/span>our own personality).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Authority bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authority_bias\">Authority bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to attribute greater accu<span id=\"urn:enhancement-1db34157-c15d-2189-f733-32ea02b6232a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">racy to <\/span>the opin<span id=\"urn:enhancement-9506467f-82db-ed43-ef9c-d395b92e98da\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ion of <\/span>an authority figure (unrelated to its content) and be more influenced by that opin<span id=\"urn:enhancement-282a1654-32c9-e6c1-f575-d8e3915abce2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ion.<sup id=\"cite_ref-95\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-95\">[95<\/a><\/sup><\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-95\">]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Cheerleader effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cheerleader_effect\">Cheerleader effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency for people to appear more attractive in a grou<span id=\"urn:enhancement-ce61bd82-9adc-96f5-606a-202f19f1b626\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">p tha<\/span>n in isolation.<sup id=\"cite_ref-96\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-96\">[96<\/a><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-96\">]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Defensive attribution hypothesis\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Defensive_attribution_hypothesis\">Defensive attribution hypothesis<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Attributing more blame to a harm-doer as the outc<span id=\"urn:enhancement-fc133932-f24c-b8bc-1442-9efad1e561f0\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ome bec<\/span>omes more severe or as personal or situational <a title=\"Similarity (psychology)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Similarity_(psychology)#Social_psychological_approaches\">similarity<\/a> to the victim increases.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Egocentric bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Egocentric_bias\">Egocentric bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Occurs when people claim more resp<span id=\"urn:enhancement-7ba45cae-43c3-2e96-7afb-2e4b754dadba\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">onsibility for<\/span> themselves for the results of a joint action than an outside observer would credit them with.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Extrinsic incentives bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extrinsic_incentives_bias\">Extrinsic incentives bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>An exception to the <i>fundamental attribution error<\/i>, when people view others as having (situational) extr<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d05694c8-5475-9153-8cc2-90d42ba8704b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">insic mot<\/span>ivations and (dispositional) intr<span id=\"urn:enhancement-2e87c526-50c9-5e4c-d351-399905f057de\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">insic mot<\/span>ivations for oneself<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"False consensus effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/False_consensus_effect\">False consensus effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which others agree with them.<sup id=\"cite_ref-97\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-97\">[97]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Forer effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forer_effect\">Forer effect<\/a> (aka Barnum effect)<\/td>\n<td>The tendency to give high accu<span id=\"urn:enhancement-18f8b7eb-c405-a892-add7-e7b9274bb925\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">racy rat<\/span>ings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide rang<span id=\"urn:enhancement-2795ad0b-219a-4aef-62dd-f7e0416c7d3c\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">e of <\/span>people. For example, <a title=\"Horoscope\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Horoscope\">horoscopes<\/a>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Fundamental attribution error\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fundamental_attribution_error\">Fundamental attribution error<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tend<span id=\"urn:enhancement-1dc39aeb-1679-abdb-db62-0ca917935964\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ency for<\/span> people to over-emphasize personality-based explanations for behaviors observed in others while under-emphasizing the role and power of situational influences on the same behavior<sup id=\"cite_ref-TroPLoS_74-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-TroPLoS-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> (see also actor-observer bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-def709d5-2bf1-58a8-1dc0-2ad3c90fd239\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">, <a title=\"Group attribution error\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Group_attribution_error\">gr<\/a><\/span><a title=\"Group attribution error\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Group_attribution_error\">oup attribution error<\/a>, positivity effect, and <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Negativity effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Negativity_effect\">negativity effect<\/a>).<sup id=\"cite_ref-Sutherland_2007_138\u2013139_75-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-Sutherland_2007_138\u2013139-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Group attribution error\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Group_attribution_error\">Group attribution error<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-174c6d24-c478-1e5f-5b98-7694097cb9a2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ed bel<\/span>i<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a55802db-aa49-fda3-40cc-8a414c45a113\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ef tha<\/span>t the characteristics of an individual grou<span id=\"urn:enhancement-5420f78f-2a8a-5828-a6fb-d9b03ffe0aea\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">p mem<\/span>ber are reflective of the grou<span id=\"urn:enhancement-05900d02-18e7-363f-570d-cff42188c037\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">p as <\/span>a whole or the tend<span id=\"urn:enhancement-742d438a-7129-c024-9378-cdae866e35c2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ency to <\/span>assume that grou<span id=\"urn:enhancement-9dd2b202-86a1-a185-825c-aadbd5384e13\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">p dec<\/span>ision outcomes reflect the preferences of grou<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a9b1c2f7-7afa-5dce-7f26-4a75574cc6d0\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">p mem<\/span>bers, even when information is available that clearly suggests otherwise.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Halo effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Halo_effect\">Halo effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tend<span id=\"urn:enhancement-f828dca4-1d9d-4ee8-b5e6-6f1388a028df\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ency for<\/span> a person&#8217;s positive or negative traits to &#8220;spill over&#8221; from one personality area to another in others&#8217; perceptions of them (see also <a title=\"Physical attractiveness stereotype\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_attractiveness_stereotype\">physical attractiveness stereotype<\/a>).<sup id=\"cite_ref-98\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-98\">[98]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Illusion of asymmetric insight\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Illusion_of_asymmetric_insight\">Illusion of asymmetric insight<\/a><\/td>\n<td>People perceive their know<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e2b77f85-c806-bc99-f638-bbf17b4f60d4\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ledge of <\/span>their peers to surpass their peers&#8217; know<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a69738e6-6e35-7f08-bff3-4bffab6c6701\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ledge of <\/span>them.<sup id=\"cite_ref-99\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-99\">[99]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Illusion of external agency\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Illusion_of_external_agency\">Illusion of external agency<\/a><\/td>\n<td>When people view self-generated preferences as instead being caused by insightful, effective and benevolent agents.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Illusion of transparency\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Illusion_of_transparency\">Illusion of transparency<\/a><\/td>\n<td>People overestimate others&#8217; ability to know<span id=\"urn:enhancement-81d73b94-6070-4a72-c5d5-5e9a9b4b3088\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> the<\/span>m, and they also overestimate their ability to know<span id=\"urn:enhancement-2412e4bb-54f0-55a8-6f4b-7c4077ee87cf\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> oth<\/span>ers.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Illusory superiority\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Illusory_superiority\">Illusory superiority<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Overestimating one&#8217;s desirable qualities, and underestimating undesirable qualities, relative to other people. (Also known as &#8220;Lake Wobegon effect&#8221;, &#8220;better-than-average effect&#8221;, or &#8220;superiority bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-1d4b5e94-068f-bf77-1586-9b9e6ac6fbd0\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">&#8220;.)<sup id=\"cite_ref-hoorens_100-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-hoorens-100\">[<\/a><\/sup><\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-hoorens-100\">100]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Ingroup bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ingroup_bias\">Ingroup bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others they perceive to be members of their own groups.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Just-world hypothesis\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Just-world_hypothesis\">Just-world hypothesis<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency for people to want to believe that the world is fundamentally just, causing them to rationalize an otherwise inexplicable injustice as deserved by the victim(s).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Moral luck\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moral_luck\">Moral luck<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency for people to ascribe greater or lesser moral standing based on the outcome of an event.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Na\u00efve cynicism\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Na%C3%AFve_cynicism\">Na\u00efve cynicism<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Expecting more <i>egocentric bias<\/i><span id=\"urn:enhancement-5c781d18-9198-405d-7d11-ad2fcdfe6579\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> in <\/span>others than in oneself.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Na\u00efve realism (psychology)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Na%C3%AFve_realism_(psychology)\">Na\u00efve realism<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The beli<span id=\"urn:enhancement-ec208ac6-9b6a-b000-4fe7-4a1e52679cd6\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ef tha<\/span>t we see reality as it really is \u2013 objectively and without bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-cd529274-14a3-9a87-8c0d-98b685fca394\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">; th<\/span>at the facts are plain for all to see; that rational people will agree with us; and that those who don&#8217;t are either uninformed, lazy, irrational, or bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-6d08e97d-3a42-1ea9-868a-332d8a168f77\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ed.<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Outgroup homogeneity bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outgroup_homogeneity_bias\">Outgroup homogeneity bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Individuals see members of their own grou<span id=\"urn:enhancement-997f4032-641a-ef93-cea0-9e3a36c1179f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">p as <\/span>being relatively more varied than members of other groups.<sup id=\"cite_ref-101\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-101\">[101]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Self-serving bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-serving_bias\">Self-serving bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to claim more resp<span id=\"urn:enhancement-3b2f2824-9cfb-853a-4b15-e83c15e80b34\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">onsibility for<\/span> successes than failures. It may also manifest itself as a tendency for people to evaluate ambi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-47af2a14-c9d9-df5e-26f1-e7c8bc7a85d5\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">guous inf<\/span>ormation in a way beneficial to their interests (see also <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Group-serving bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Group-serving_bias\">group-serving bias<\/a>).<sup id=\"cite_ref-102\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-102\">[102]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Shared information bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shared_information_bias\">Shared information bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Known as the tendency for grou<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e89ef72a-4e9d-45e4-26c3-f9d7a2c5c4e0\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">p mem<\/span>bers to spend more time and energy discussing information that all members are already familiar with (i.e., shared information), and less time and energy discussing information that only some members are aware of (i.e., unshared information).<sup id=\"cite_ref-F_103-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-F-103\">[103]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"System justification\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_justification\">System justification<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to defend and bolster the status quo. Existing social, economic, and political arrangements tend to be preferred, and alternatives disparaged, sometimes even at the expense of individual and collective self-interest. (See also status quo bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-71a151a3-cd2e-8264-80f7-c7b0ead7f7d4\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">.)<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Trait ascription bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trait_ascription_bias\">Trait ascription bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency for people to view themselves as relatively variable in terms of personality, behavior, and mood while viewing others as much more predictable.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Ultimate attribution error\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ultimate_attribution_error\">Ultimate attribution error<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Similar to the fundamental attribution error, in this error a person is likely to make an internal attribution to an entire grou<span id=\"urn:enhancement-1cbaa807-4155-9324-5326-b45f705eb8d6\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">p ins<\/span>tead of the individuals within the grou<span id=\"urn:enhancement-49182aa3-60a4-f698-104c-20fa9adfc285\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">p.<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Worse-than-average effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Worse-than-average_effect\">Worse-than-average effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>A tendency to beli<span id=\"urn:enhancement-9205436d-55dd-d47a-220d-4fb0422040d3\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">eve our<\/span>selves to be worse than others at tasks which are difficult.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Kruger,_J._1999_104-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-Kruger,_J._1999-104\">[104]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><span id=\"Memory_errors_and_biases\" class=\"mw-headline\">Memory errors and biases<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\" role=\"note\">Main article: <a title=\"List of memory biases\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_memory_biases\">Li<\/a><a title=\"List of memory biases\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_memory_biases\">st of memory biases<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In <a title=\"Psychology\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Psychology\">psychology<\/a> <i>and<\/i> <a title=\"Cognitive science\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cognitive_science\">cognitive science<\/a>, a memory bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-1cf8541b-2c23-2042-0096-240f5d338245\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> is <\/span>a <a title=\"Cognitive bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cognitive_bias\">cognitive bias<\/a> that either enhances or impairs the recall of a <a title=\"Memory\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Memory\">memory<\/a> (either the chances that the memory will be recalled at all, or the amount of time it takes for it to be recalled, or both), or that alters the content of a reported memory. There are many types of memory bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-304394c4-c139-909b-4849-403f1de10189\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">, in<\/span>cluding:<\/p>\n<table class=\"wikitable\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th scope=\"col\">Name<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Description<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Bizarreness effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bizarreness_effect\">Bizarreness effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Bizarre material is better remembered than common material.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Choice-supportive bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Choice-supportive_bias\">Choice-supportive bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>In a self-justifying manner retroactively ascribing one&#8217;s choices to be more informed than they were when they were made.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span id=\"Change_bias\">Change bias<\/span><\/td>\n<td>After an investment of effort in producing change, remembering one&#8217;s past performance as more difficult than it actually was.<sup id=\"cite_ref-schacter_105-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-schacter-105\">[105]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\">[<i><a title=\"Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources\"><span title=\"The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (October 2013)\">unreliable source?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Childhood amnesia\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Childhood_amnesia\">Childhood amnesia<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The retention of few memories from before the age of four.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span id=\"Conservatism\">Conservatism<\/span> or Regressive bias<\/td>\n<td>Tendency to remember high<span id=\"urn:enhancement-b8b3bcb9-6ba4-2b7e-1089-a38ca100cf9e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> val<\/span>ues and high<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a662be36-ba81-55b1-f441-d730fd7b369d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> lik<\/span>elihoods\/prob<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d8261051-b7dc-c97d-6c4c-6698edd46c9c\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">abilities\/fre<\/span>quencies as lower than they actually were and low ones as higher than they actually were. Based on the evid<span id=\"urn:enhancement-f96f9128-0690-8522-72eb-c0f84af1f480\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ence, me<\/span>mories are not extreme enough.<sup id=\"cite_ref-ReferenceA_86-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-ReferenceA-86\">[86]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-Experimental_Psychology_1523_87-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-Experimental_Psychology_1523-87\">[87]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span id=\"Consistency_bias\">Consistency bias<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Incorrectly remembering one&#8217;s past attitudes and behaviour as resembling present attitudes and behaviour.<sup id=\"cite_ref-106\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-106\">[106]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Cue-dependent forgetting\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cue-dependent_forgetting\">Context effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>That cognition and memory are dependent on context, such that out-of-context memories are more difficult to retrieve than in-context memories (e.g., recall time and accu<span id=\"urn:enhancement-7e31c61d-c9fa-b08b-aab2-5729f420f400\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">racy for<\/span> a work-related memory will be lower at home, and vice versa).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Cross-race effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cross-race_effect\">Cross-race effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency for people of one race to have difficulty identifying members of a race other than their own.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Cryptomnesia\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptomnesia\">Cryptomnesia<\/a><\/td>\n<td>A form of <a title=\"Misattribution of memory\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Misattribution_of_memory\"><i>misattribution<\/i><\/a> where a memory is mistaken for imagination, because there is no subjective experience of it being a memory.<sup id=\"cite_ref-schacter_105-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-schacter-105\">[105]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Egocentric bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Egocentric_bias\">Egocentric bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Recalling the past in a self-serving mann<span id=\"urn:enhancement-04795d8c-fc4c-50b6-05bc-1269532c6f1d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">er, e.<\/span>g., remembering one&#8217;s exam grades as being better than they were, or remembering a caught fish as bigger than it really was.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Fading affect bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fading_affect_bias\">Fading affect bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>A bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-32922e4f-8dbd-f1fa-344b-95c789ae729f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> in <\/span>which the emotion asso<span id=\"urn:enhancement-9d0e629f-065c-5aee-42e9-4193724220b5\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ciated wit<\/span>h unpleasant memories fades more quickly than the emotion asso<span id=\"urn:enhancement-1d5441c7-b316-dd6d-a1b1-3672497afd14\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ciated wit<\/span>h posi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e1917171-55ac-ce59-1187-7c4f46cb7a1a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tive eve<\/span>n<span id=\"urn:enhancement-6944767b-078d-1e5d-5791-e9fb872e7a1d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ts.<sup id=\"cite_ref-107\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-107\">[10<\/a><\/sup><\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-107\">7]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"False memory\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/False_memory\">False memory<\/a><\/td>\n<td>A form of <i>misattribution<\/i> where imagination is mistaken for a memory.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Generation effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Generation_effect\">Generation effect<\/a> (Self-generation effe<span id=\"urn:enhancement-41673b02-56e6-aeeb-50d9-a5bc1914336b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ct)<\/span><\/td>\n<td>That self-generated information is remembered best. For instance, people are better able to recall memories of stat<span id=\"urn:enhancement-9391bb26-aa4c-0baa-8479-4e1343412de7\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ements tha<\/span>t they have generated than similar stat<span id=\"urn:enhancement-6082d9d7-9c4c-f0bc-7cf3-e4df2972d14d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ements gen<\/span>erated by others.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Google effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_effect\">Google effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to forget information that can be found readily online by using Inte<span id=\"urn:enhancement-c10de94c-f3e6-b495-19c5-9a2c82b270e7\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">rnet sea<\/span>rch engines.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Hindsight bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hindsight_bias\">Hindsight bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The inclination to see past even<span id=\"urn:enhancement-2b099c5e-e444-5d0e-7995-56cf0e5f802d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ts as <\/span>being more predictable than they actually were; also called the &#8220;I-knew-it-all-along&#8221; effect.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span id=\"Humor_effect\">Humor effect<\/span><\/td>\n<td>That humo<span id=\"urn:enhancement-b0782f4f-83f4-e722-9cc9-f9dd54ac2228\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">rous ite<\/span>ms are more easily remembered than non-humo<span id=\"urn:enhancement-ce7bbbed-acf5-1dfb-be66-e07433094a6c\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">rous one<\/span>s, which might be expl<span id=\"urn:enhancement-6033228d-a7a4-17fc-b365-5874daa69414\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ained by <\/span>the distinctiveness of humo<span id=\"urn:enhancement-97136ad4-e957-0bcc-db4c-2daf7c8cf78a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">r, th<\/span>e increased cognitive processing time to unde<span id=\"urn:enhancement-aae80ee7-84b1-cf9d-f185-09912b04a01d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">rstand the<\/span> humo<span id=\"urn:enhancement-f9941445-1550-b925-6ac1-34ab9b8559f1\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">r, or<\/span> the emotional arousal caus<span id=\"urn:enhancement-ceb91ccf-d8ea-8c3e-53dd-c1c1dd7dfc7e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ed by <\/span>the humo<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d76e0b2f-c068-07fb-d798-c6b9185f77ab\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">r.<sup id=\"cite_ref-108\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-108\">[10<\/a><\/sup><\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-108\">8]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Illusion of truth effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Illusion_of_truth_effect\">Illusion of truth effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>That people are more likely to identify as true stat<span id=\"urn:enhancement-8fd5562d-d763-8c64-73e0-52c9d24cd6ce\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ements tho<\/span>se they have previously heard (even if they cannot consciously remember having heard them), regardless of the actual validity of the stat<span id=\"urn:enhancement-0094ddc7-d511-f7f0-cc98-fecdf57716d1\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ement. In<\/span> other words, a person is more likely to believe a familiar statement than an unfamiliar one.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Illusory correlation\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Illusory_correlation\">Illusory correlation<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Inaccurately remembering a relationship between two events.<sup id=\"cite_ref-HilbertPsychBull_5-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-HilbertPsychBull-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-ReferenceB_67-1\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-ReferenceB-67\">[67]<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Lag effect<\/td>\n<td>The phenomenon whereby learning is greater when studying is spread out over time, as opposed to studying the same amount of time in a single session. See also <a title=\"Spacing effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spacing_effect\">spacing effect<\/a>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Leveling and sharpening\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leveling_and_sharpening\">Leveling and sharpening<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Memory distortions introduced by the loss of details in a recollection over time, often concurrent with sharpening or selective recollection of certain details that take on exaggerated significance in relation to the details or aspects of the experience lost through leveling. Both bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-46d6b537-7d28-103e-6e89-df144b4f8ea7\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es may<\/span> be reinforced over time, and by repeated recollection or re-telling of a memory.<sup id=\"cite_ref-109\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-109\">[109]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Levels-of-processing effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Levels-of-processing_effect\">Levels-of-processing effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>That different methods of encoding information into memory have different levels of effectiveness.<sup id=\"cite_ref-110\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-110\">[110]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span id=\"List-length_effect\">List-length effect<\/span><\/td>\n<td>A smaller percentage of items are remembered in a longer list, but as the length of the list increases, the absolute number of items remembered increases as well. For example, consider a list of 30 items (&#8220;L30&#8221;) and a list of 100 items (&#8220;L100&#8221;). An individual may remember 15 items from L30, or 50%, whereas the individual may remember 40 items from L100, or 40%. Although the percent of L30 items remembered (50%) is greater than the percent of L100 (40%), more L100 items (40) are remembered than L30 items (15).<sup id=\"cite_ref-memcog_111-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-memcog-111\">[111]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\">[<i><a title=\"Wikipedia:Please clarify\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Please_clarify\"><span title=\"The text near this tag needs further explanation. (November 2013)\">further explanation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Misinformation effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Misinformation_effect\">Misinformation effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Memory becoming less accurate because of interference from <i>post-event information<\/i>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-112\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-112\">[112]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Modality effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modality_effect\">Modality effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>That memory recall is higher for the last items of a list when the list items were received via speech than when they were received through writing.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Cue-dependent forgetting\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cue-dependent_forgetting\">Mood-congruent memory bias<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The improved recall of information congruent with one&#8217;s current mood.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span id=\"Next-in-line_effect\">Next-in-line effect<\/span><\/td>\n<td>People taking turns speaking in a group tend to have diminished recall for <span class=\"clarify-content\">the words of others<\/span><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Clarify\">[<i><a title=\"Wikipedia:Please clarify\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Please_clarify\"><span title=\"All words spoken by that other, or just those words spoken most recently? (March 2018)\">clarify<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> who spoke immediately before them.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Weiten2007_113-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-Weiten2007-113\">[113]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Part-list cueing effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Part-list_cueing_effect\">Part-list cueing effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>That being shown some items from a list and later retrieving one item causes it to become harder to retrieve the other items.<sup id=\"cite_ref-114\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-114\">[114]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Peak-end rule\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peak-end_rule\">Peak-end rule<\/a><\/td>\n<td>That people seem to perceive not the sum of an experience but the average of how it was at its peak (e.g., pleasant or unpleasant) and how it ended.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span id=\"Persistence\">Persistence<\/span><\/td>\n<td>The unwanted recurrence of memories of a <a title=\"Psychological trauma\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Psychological_trauma\">traumatic event<\/a>.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\">[<i><a title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2013)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Picture superiority effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Picture_superiority_effect\">Picture superiority effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The notion that concepts that are learned by viewing pictures are more easily and frequently recalled than are concepts that are learned by viewing their written word form counterparts.<sup id=\"cite_ref-shepard_115-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-shepard-115\">[115]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-McBride_116-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-McBride-116\">[116]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-defeyter_117-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-defeyter-117\">[117]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-whitehouse_118-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-whitehouse-118\">[118]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-ally_gold_119-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-ally_gold-119\">[119]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-curran_120-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-curran-120\">[120]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Positivity effect (<a title=\"Socioemotional selectivity theory\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Socioemotional_selectivity_theory\">So<\/a><a title=\"Socioemotional selectivity theory\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Socioemotional_selectivity_theory\">cioemotional selectivity theory<\/a>)<\/td>\n<td>That older adults favor positive over negative information in their memories.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Primacy effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Primacy_effect\">Primacy effect<\/a>, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Recency effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recency_effect\">recency effect<\/a> &amp; <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Serial position effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Serial_position_effect\">serial position effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>That items near the end of a sequence are the easiest to recall, followed by the items at the beginning of a sequence; items in the middle are the least likely to be remembered.<sup id=\"cite_ref-serial_position_121-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-serial_position-121\">[121]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span id=\"Processing_difficulty_effect\">Processing difficulty effect<\/span><\/td>\n<td>That information that takes longer to read and is thought about more (processed with more difficulty) is more easily remembered.<sup id=\"cite_ref-122\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-122\">[122]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Reminiscence bump\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reminiscence_bump\">Reminiscence bump<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The recalling of more personal events from adolescence and early adulthood than personal events from other lifetime periods.<sup id=\"cite_ref-123\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-123\">[123]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Rosy retrospection\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rosy_retrospection\">Rosy retrospection<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The remembering of the past as having been better than it really was.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span id=\"Self-relevance_effect\">Self-relevance effect<\/span><\/td>\n<td>That memories relating to the self are better recalled than similar information relating to others.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Misattribution of memory\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Misattribution_of_memory\">Source confusion<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Confusing episodic memories with other information, creating distorted memories.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Lieberman2011_124-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-Lieberman2011-124\">[124]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Spacing effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spacing_effect\">Spacing effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>That information is better recalled if exposure to it is repeated over a long span of time rather than a short one.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Spotlight effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spotlight_effect\">Spotlight effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to overestimate the amount that other people notice your appearance or behavior.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span id=\"Stereotypical_bias\">Stereotypical bias<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Memory distorted towards stereotypes (e.g., racial or gender).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span id=\"Suffix_effect\">Suffix effect<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Diminishment of the rece<span id=\"urn:enhancement-3115ce40-ad51-8f7e-a00f-7df642e2232f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ncy eff<\/span>ect because a sound item is appended to the list that the subj<span id=\"urn:enhancement-9af1dd2c-7699-ec7a-7614-c9da2a61d416\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ect is <\/span><i>not<\/i> required to recall.<sup id=\"cite_ref-125\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-125\">[125]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"cite_ref-PittEdwards2003_126-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-PittEdwards2003-126\">[126]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Suggestibility\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Suggestibility#External\">Suggestibility<\/a><\/td>\n<td>A form of misattribution where ideas suggested by a questioner are mistaken for memory.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Tachypsychia\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tachypsychia\">Tachypsychia<\/a><\/td>\n<td>When time perceived by the individual either lengthens, making events appear to slow down, or contracts.<sup id=\"cite_ref-127\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-127\">[127]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Telescoping effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telescoping_effect\">Telescoping effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The tendency to displace recent events backward in time and remote events forward in time, so that recent events appear more remote, and remote events, more recent.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Testing effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Testing_effect\">Testing effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>The fact that you more easily remember information you have read by rewriting it instead of rereading it.<sup id=\"cite_ref-128\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-128\">[128]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Tip of the tongue\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tip_of_the_tongue\">Tip of the tongue<\/a> phenomenon<\/td>\n<td>When a subj<span id=\"urn:enhancement-f3c85169-32c3-8c78-82f2-943d08787b0d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ect is <\/span>able to recall parts of an item, or related information, but is frustratingly unable to recall the whole item. This is thought to be an instance of &#8220;blocking&#8221; where multiple similar memories are being recalled and interfere with each other.<sup id=\"cite_ref-schacter_105-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-schacter-105\">[105]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span id=\"Travis_Syndrome\">Travis Syndrome<\/span><\/td>\n<td>Overestimating the significance of the present.<sup id=\"cite_ref-travis_129-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-travis-129\">[129]<\/a><\/sup> It is related to the enlightenment <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Idea of Progress\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Idea_of_Progress\">Idea of Progress<\/a> and <a title=\"Chronological snobbery\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chronological_snobbery\">chronological snobbery<\/a> with possibly an <a title=\"Appeal to novelty\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Appeal_to_novelty\">appeal to novelty<\/a> <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Logical fallacy\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logical_fallacy\">logical fallacy<\/a> being part of the bias.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span id=\"Verbatim_effect\">Verbatim effect<\/span><\/td>\n<td>That the &#8220;gist&#8221; of what someone has said is better remembered than the verbatim wording.<sup id=\"cite_ref-130\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-130\">[130]<\/a><\/sup> This is because memories are representations, not exact copies.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Von Restorff effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Von_Restorff_effect\">von Restorff effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>That an item that sticks out is more likely to be remembered than other items.<sup id=\"cite_ref-131\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-131\">[131]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a title=\"Zeigarnik effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zeigarnik_effect\">Zeigarnik effect<\/a><\/td>\n<td>That uncompleted or interrupted tasks are remembered better than completed ones.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><span id=\"Common_theoretical_causes_of_some_cognitive_biases\" class=\"mw-headline\">Common theoretical causes of some cognitive biases<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Bounded rationality\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bounded_rationality\">Bounded rationality<\/a> \u2013 limits on optimization and rationality\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Prospect theory\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prospect_theory\">Prospect theory<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Mental accounting\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mental_accounting\">Mental accounting<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Adaptive bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adaptive_bias\">Adaptive bias<\/a> \u2013 basing decisions on limited information and biasing them based on the costs of being wrong<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Attribute substitution\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Attribute_substitution\">Attribute substitution<\/a> \u2013 making a complex, difficult judgment by unconsciously substituting it by an easier judgment<sup id=\"cite_ref-revisited_132-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-revisited-132\">[132]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Attribution theory\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Attribution_theory\">Attribution theory<\/a>\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Salience (neuroscience)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Salience_(neuroscience)\">Salience<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Na\u00efve realism (psychology)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Na%C3%AFve_realism_(psychology)\">Na\u00efve realism<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Cognitive dissonance\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cognitive_dissonance\">Cognitive dissonance<\/a>, and related:\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Impression management\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Impression_management\">Impression management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Self-perception theory\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-perception_theory\">Self-perception theory<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Heuristics in judgment and decision making\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heuristics_in_judgment_and_decision_making\">Heuristics in judgment and decision making<\/a>, including:\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Availability heuristic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Availability_heuristic\">Availability heuristic<\/a> \u2013 estimating what is more likely by what is more available in memory, which is biased toward vivid, unusual, or emotionally charged examples<sup id=\"cite_ref-h_and_b_66-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-h_and_b-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Representativeness heuristic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Representativeness_heuristic\">Representativeness heuristic<\/a> \u2013 judging prob<span id=\"urn:enhancement-f9541d2a-2d5e-35a3-e8a9-d4e4476cfd2b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">abilities on <\/span>the basis of resemblance<sup id=\"cite_ref-h_and_b_66-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-h_and_b-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Affect heuristic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Affect_heuristic\">Affect heuristic<\/a> \u2013 basing a decision on an emotional reaction rather than a calculation of risks and benefits<sup id=\"cite_ref-133\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-133\">[133]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Some theories of <a title=\"Emotion\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emotion\">emotion<\/a> such as:\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Two-factor theory of emotion\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Two-factor_theory_of_emotion\">Two-factor theory of emotion<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Somatic markers hypothesis\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Somatic_markers_hypothesis\">Somatic markers hypothesis<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Introspection illusion\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Introspection_illusion\">Introspection illusion<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Misinterpretations or <a title=\"Misuse of statistics\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Misuse_of_statistics\">misuse of statistics<\/a>; <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Innumeracy\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Innumeracy\">innumeracy<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>A 2012 <i><a title=\"Psychological Bulletin\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Psychological_Bulletin\">Psychological Bulletin<\/a><\/i> article suggested that at least eight seemingly unrelated bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-0941d8bd-1ca6-c543-b949-51fc58267b04\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es can<\/span> be produced by the same <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Information-theoretic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information-theoretic\">information-theoretic<\/a> generative mechanism that assumes noisy information processing during storage and retrieval of information in human memory.<sup id=\"cite_ref-HilbertPsychBull_5-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-HilbertPsychBull-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"Individual_differences_in_decision_making_biases\" class=\"mw-headline\">Individual differences in decision making biases<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>People do appear to have stable individual differences in their susceptibility to decision bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-7c4cc2fd-8b1b-0a83-653b-8d2b15994f08\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es suc<\/span>h as <a title=\"Overconfidence effect\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overconfidence_effect\">overconfidence<\/a>, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Temporal discounting\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Temporal_discounting\">temporal discounting<\/a>, and <a title=\"Bias blind spot\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bias_blind_spot\">bias blind spot<\/a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-134\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-134\">[134]<\/a><\/sup> That said, these stable levels of bias within individuals are possible to change. Participants in experiments who watched trai<span id=\"urn:enhancement-c3caca2e-87c8-0b9a-8559-be6377298aa6\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ning vid<\/span>eos and played debiasing games showed medium to large reductions both immediately and up to three months later in the extent to which they exhibited susceptibility to six cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-c1ac4d92-c94f-e942-cd71-4bd4ab8f1e56\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es: <a title=\"Anchoring\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anchoring\">an<\/a><\/span><a title=\"Anchoring\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anchoring\">choring<\/a>, bias blind spot, <a title=\"Confirmation bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Confirmation_bias\">confirmation bias<\/a>, <a title=\"Fundamental attribution error\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fundamental_attribution_error\">fundamental attribution error<\/a>, <a class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Projection bias\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Projection_bias\">projection bias<\/a>, and <a title=\"Representativeness heuristic\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Representativeness_heuristic\">representativeness<\/a>.<sup id=\"cite_ref-135\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases#cite_note-135\">[135]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"Debiasing\" class=\"mw-headline\">Debiasing<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><a title=\"Debiasing\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Debiasing\">Debiasing<\/a> is the reduction of bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-ba1aca1b-d895-9e3a-3cb5-cc041289a79b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es in <\/span>judg<span id=\"urn:enhancement-0de95f1e-15e7-8e7a-6ccd-decd999c57ef\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ment and<\/span> decision making through incentives, nudges, and trai<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a97d5275-65f7-89cf-f145-956bddfa08b3\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ning. <a title=\"Cognitive bias mitigation\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cognitive_bias_mitigation\">Co<\/a><\/span><a title=\"Cognitive bias mitigation\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cognitive_bias_mitigation\">gnitive bias mitigation<\/a> and <a title=\"Cognitive bias modification\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cognitive_bias_modification\">cognitive bias modification<\/a> are forms of debiasing specifically applicable to cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-20dc936b-3a2b-8fa1-1845-fd772dd95e53\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es and<\/span> their effects.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<p>Source: https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases<br \/>\n[refs]\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., &amp; Podsakoff, N. P.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">2003<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">Common Method Biases in Behavioral Research: A Critical Review of the Literature and Recommended Remedies<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">Journal of Applied Psychology<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037\/0021-9010.88.5.879<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0021-9010.88.5.879\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1037\/0021-9010.88.5.879\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-1\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-1-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-1-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-1-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cInterest in the problem of method bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-cff609cf-c6be-8bba-f320-f693e0ad65ca\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es has<\/span> a long history in the behavioral sciences. despite this, a comprehensive summary of the potential sources of method bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e3d40533-9bd0-58d1-75b7-e20e26e866e2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es and<\/span> how to control for them does not exist. therefore, the purpose of this article is to examine the extent to which method biases influence behavioral research results, identify potential sources of method biases, discuss the cognitive processes through which method biases influence responses to measures, evaluate the many different procedural and statistical techniques that can be used to control method biases, and provide recommendations for how to select appropriate procedural and statistical remedies for different types of research settings.\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Tversky, A., &amp; Kahneman, D.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">1973<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and prob<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e8046d8c-0b7b-d562-93c8-455b88a3d8b9\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ability<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">Co<\/span>gnitive Psychology<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016\/0010-0285(73)90033-9<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0010-0285(73)90033-9\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1016\/0010-0285(73)90033-9\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-2\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-2-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-2-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-2-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cThis paper explores a judgmental heuristic in which a person evaluates the frequency of classes or the prob<span id=\"urn:enhancement-7c158a8d-830e-8bdd-3c07-4dec5b1d1e12\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ability of <\/span>events by availability, i.e., by the ease with which relevant instances come to mind. in general, availability is correlated with ecological frequency, but it is also affected by other factors. consequently, the reliance on the availability heuristic leads to systematic biases. such biases are demonstrated in the judged frequency of classes of words, of combinatorial outcomes, and of repeated events. the phenomenon of illusory correlation is explained as an availability bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-52be7cc3-ef29-4674-0c47-a1bb86562b94\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">. th<\/span>e effects of the availability of incidents and scenarios on subjective prob<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d0bf0530-d562-6e06-0fae-7f91453627b6\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ability are<\/span> discussed. \u00a9 1973.\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Kahneman, D., &amp; Tversky, A.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">1996<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">On the reality of cognitive illusions.<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">Psychological Review<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037\/0033-295X.103.3.582<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-295X.103.3.582\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1037\/0033-295X.103.3.582\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-3\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-3-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-3-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-3-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cThe study of heuristics and biases in judgement has been criticized in several publications by g. gigerenzer, who argues that \u2018biases are not biases\u2019 and \u2018heuristics are meant to explain what does not exist\u2019 (1991, p. 102). the article responds to gigerenzer\u2019s critique and shows that it misrepresents the authors\u2019 theoretical position and ignores critical evidence. contrary to gigerenzer\u2019s central empirical claim, judgments of frequency&#8211;not only subjective prob<span id=\"urn:enhancement-2db3f5ca-cb3b-15c7-77b6-5e37c7f087fb\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">abilities&#8211;ar<\/span>e susceptible to large and systematic bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-781a7e18-1cc7-0ac0-ddf3-afec92588024\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es. a <\/span>postscript responds to gigerenzer\u2019s (1996) reply.\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Oechssler, J., Roider, A., &amp; Schmitz, P. W.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">2009<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">Cognitive abil<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a02c56b5-d409-25de-2d37-aa9d992a0d80\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ities and<\/span> behavioral bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-eb695244-33e6-79e3-8c02-a2aaaa391113\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">Jo<\/span>urnal of Economic Beha<span id=\"urn:enhancement-4fa2772d-767a-4983-75d7-2407192e3f61\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">vior and<\/span> Organization<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016\/j.jebo.2009.04.018<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jebo.2009.04.018\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1016\/j.jebo.2009.04.018\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-4\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-4-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-4-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-4-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cWe use a simple, three-item test<span id=\"urn:enhancement-2330a236-8b51-c77c-754d-270bab3aba80\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> for<\/span> cognitive abil<span id=\"urn:enhancement-85658d86-36ab-7a9d-c100-264729f672d9\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ities to <\/span>investigate whether established behavioral bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-43381707-cf80-7b11-878d-2cf2564c9873\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es tha<\/span>t play a prominent role in behavioral economics and finance are related to cognitive abil<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a5978981-fb4e-8c05-0043-b0b60c57e79e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ities. we<\/span> find that higher test<span id=\"urn:enhancement-0f1e240d-677b-cdbe-c551-766d7c2898bc\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> sco<\/span>res on the cognitive reflection test<span id=\"urn:enhancement-447e740c-1507-64c1-fe15-5b9be9c47a6b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> of <\/span>frederick [frederick, s., 2005. cognitive reflection and decision-making. journal of economic perspectives 19, 25-42] indeed are correlated with lower incidences of the conjunction fallacy and conservatism in updating prob<span id=\"urn:enhancement-7076ab0d-ae6a-1492-ef6c-4daf9998c38f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">abilities. te<\/span>st<span id=\"urn:enhancement-eac17e37-b3e0-b779-c6f8-5f44eca2fdfb\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> sco<\/span>res are also significantly related to subjects\u2019 time and risk preferences. test<span id=\"urn:enhancement-0b7888a0-e912-9648-1904-54604078ff66\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> sco<\/span>res have no influence on the amount of anchoring, although there is evidence of anchoring among all subjects. even if incidences of most bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-ab4c0fc0-12c8-59af-53e5-0d826b80600a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es are<\/span> lower for people with higher cognitive abil<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a3a585e8-f23a-0318-24f5-85c198c64f31\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ities, th<\/span>ey still remain substantial. \u00a9 2009 elsevier b.v. all rights reserved.\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Griffiths, T. L., Chater, N., Kemp, C., Perfors, A., &amp; Tenenbaum, J. B.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">2010<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">Probabilistic models of cognition: exploring representations and indu<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a06c1c33-42b2-74ab-2377-538a206e5069\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ctive bia<\/span>s<span id=\"urn:enhancement-b873807f-0500-85ca-980c-61f3bdfe76c2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">Tr<\/span>ends in Cognitive Sciences<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016\/j.tics.2010.05.004<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tics.2010.05.004\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1016\/j.tics.2010.05.004\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-5\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-5-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-5-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-5-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cCogn<span id=\"urn:enhancement-59109253-96c0-232f-d303-6c9ec9e9f3c7\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">itive science aim<\/span>s to reverse-engineer the mind, and many of the engineering challenges the mind faces involve indu<span id=\"urn:enhancement-9a4d47e1-2111-bdc8-1fa2-c88762088bbe\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ction. th<\/span>e probabilistic approach to modeling cognition begins by identifying ideal solutions to these indu<span id=\"urn:enhancement-efe0bd75-c5d4-0b91-6c75-631369b4a382\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ctive pro<\/span>blems. mental processes are then modeled using algorithms for approximating these solutions, and neural processes are viewed as mechanisms for implementing these algorithms, with the result being a top-down analysis of cognition starting with the function of cognitive processes. typical connectionist mode<span id=\"urn:enhancement-37fab83a-eb82-c095-f914-2b95f625db69\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ls, by<\/span> contrast, follow a bottom-up approach, beginning with a characterization of neural mechanisms and exploring what macro-level functional phenomena might emerge. we argue that the top-down approach yields greater flexibility for exploring the representations and indu<span id=\"urn:enhancement-2c7c0081-09c2-eda3-6f3e-acf768df2451\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ctive bia<\/span>ses that underlie human cognition. \u00a9 2010 elsevier ltd.\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Stanovich, K. E., &amp; West, R. F.. (<span class=\"refyear\">2<\/span>008<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">On the Relative Independence of Thinking Biases and Cognitive Ability<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">Journal of Personality and Social Psychology<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037\/0022-3514.94.4.672<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.94.4.672\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1037\/0022-3514.94.4.672\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-6\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-6-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-6-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-6-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cIn 7 different studies, the auth<span id=\"urn:enhancement-04b1c8fe-b277-bc22-62b1-5e60829f5a51\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ors obs<\/span>erved that a large number of thinking biases are uncorrelated with cognitive ability. these thinking biases include some of the most classic and well-studied biases in the heuristics and biases literature, including the conjunction effe<span id=\"urn:enhancement-277e7e00-bcc3-3ff0-eab5-c3e6f7d7ccfe\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ct, fr<\/span>aming effects, anchoring effects, outcome bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-86b4150c-45c1-d5c6-38b1-30a0a9c959d0\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">, ba<\/span>se-rate neglect, \u2018less is more\u2019 effects, affect biases, omission bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-32ad48f2-beb8-4738-db93-01fc1ae39a3e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">, my<\/span>side bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-78ecfbf9-caed-2562-d5ee-a41fe092c29b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">, su<\/span>nk-cost effe<span id=\"urn:enhancement-047acdda-30b0-7e07-ddd9-428659a33462\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ct, an<\/span>d certainty effects that violate the axioms of expected util<span id=\"urn:enhancement-421e479a-c53f-6d9a-5ad2-9da725d3dbc2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ity theory. in<\/span> a further expe<span id=\"urn:enhancement-107bf274-e762-7ee7-c2de-ad1c18bd26c1\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">riment, th<\/span>e auth<span id=\"urn:enhancement-7c74e2ec-aefb-2bde-1157-328ba47dae3b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ors non<\/span>etheless showed that cognitive ability does correlate with the tendency to avoid some rati<span id=\"urn:enhancement-c3304cc8-f27f-a036-c1d6-8b36b6dea7f0\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">onal thinking bia<\/span>ses, specifically the tendency to display denominator neglect, prob<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a4c8071b-095f-6659-b3d4-d111d9a12f0f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ability mat<\/span>ching rather than maximizing, beli<span id=\"urn:enhancement-6b9b61f3-1ccd-6882-bd54-6e3a92e8f59a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ef bia<\/span>s<span id=\"urn:enhancement-fc846f9c-0bf1-5c1a-e476-58bf72175cd6\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">, an<\/span>d matching bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-987cef59-5f96-393d-0a74-888911067abb\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> on <\/span>the 4-card selection task. the auth<span id=\"urn:enhancement-39d5456f-b77a-bb8b-9d14-0b257ced9a19\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ors pre<\/span>sent a framework for predicting when cognitive ability will and will not correlate with a rati<span id=\"urn:enhancement-7db9c79b-568f-6519-b660-5b813b81558f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">onal thinking ten<\/span>dency. (psycinfo database record (c) 2016 apa, all rights reserved)\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Hallion, L. S., &amp; Ruscio, A. M.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">2011<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">A Meta-Analysis of the Effect of Cognitive Bias Modification on Anxi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-0921045b-66e2-354a-2736-98554e25f740\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ety and<\/span> Depression. <span class=\"refjournal\">Ps<\/span>ychological Bulletin<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037\/a0024355<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0024355\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1037\/a0024355\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-7\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-7-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-7-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-7-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cCognitive biases have been theorized to play a critical role in thenonset and maintenance of anxi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-99358bb3-2769-6b44-cf7b-b5707ca19a2a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ety and<\/span> depression. cognitive biasnmodification (cbm), an experimental paradigm that uses trai<span id=\"urn:enhancement-0e9277a9-b175-3891-7b81-3955e9e84505\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ning ton<\/span>induce maladaptive or adaptive cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e6561463-4694-2fd6-145d-fc8c1dece6a7\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es, wa<\/span>s developed to testnthese causal models. although cbm has generated considerable interest innthe past decade, both as an experimental paradigm and as a form ofntreatment, there have been no quantitative reviews of the effect of cbmnon anxi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-59fcc6d0-5a80-7412-8a20-81224341e315\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ety and<\/span> depression. this meta-analysis of 45 studies (2,591nparticipants) assessed the effect of cbm on cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a66f5433-deea-a749-ac34-7c9fd1553839\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es and<\/span> onnanxiety and depression. cbm had a medium effect on bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-b9cad272-281e-c344-4c21-cf04f63ee838\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es (g <\/span>= 0.49)nthat was stronger for interpretation (g = 0.81) than for attention (g =n0.29) bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-c5d97a1b-40e4-2e5a-325b-cd225926304d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es. cb<\/span>m further had a small effect on anxi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-6203f1d8-191e-3aa1-f81b-bda2d4416160\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ety and<\/span> depressionn(g = 0.13), although this effect was reliable only when symptoms werenassessed after participants experienced a stressor (g = 0.23). whennanxiety and depression were examined separately, cbm significantlynmodified anxi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-b2111f23-96d4-83e5-eaf1-920088ff1ab2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ety but<\/span> not depression. there was a nonsignificant trendntoward a larger effect for studies including multiple trai<span id=\"urn:enhancement-eb37a6c0-ec4e-a730-0d14-6f485a0e3a7e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ning ses<\/span>sions.nthese findings are broadly consistent with cognitive theories of anxietynand depression that propose an interactive effect of cognitive biasesnand stressors on these symptoms. however, the small effect sizesnobserved here suggest that this effect may be more modest thannpreviously believed.\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Gigerenzer, G.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">1991<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">How to make Cognitive Illusions Disappear: Beyond \u201cHeuristics and Biases\u201d<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">European Review of Social Psychology<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1080\/14792779143000033<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/14792779143000033\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1080\/14792779143000033\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-8\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-8-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-8-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-8-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cMost so-called \u2018errors\u2019 in probabilistic reasoning are in fact not violations of prob<span id=\"urn:enhancement-01b98244-3cfe-98bd-8531-e6189e31da7b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ability the<\/span>ory. examples of such \u2018errors\u2019 include overconfi dence bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-7bd5ea58-1507-9d49-ae81-f1761dcdc934\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">, co<\/span>njunction fallacy, and base-rate neglect. rese<span id=\"urn:enhancement-88860f6d-fe25-be6f-dca3-8adde7fb891f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">arch- er<\/span>s have relied on a very narrow normative view, and have ignored conceptual distinctions\u2014for example, single case versus relative frequency\u2014fundamental to prob<span id=\"urn:enhancement-001a5251-6f04-1142-bd5a-1ca29a051e71\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ability the<\/span>ory. by recognizing and using these distinctions, however, we can make apparently stable \u2018errors\u2019 disappear, reappear, or even invert. i suggest what a reformed unde<span id=\"urn:enhancement-8f4b10b5-1f94-d4ff-2c5e-689c44aacf49\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">rstanding of <\/span>judgments under uncertainty might look like.\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Roiser, J. P., Elliott, R., &amp; Sahakian, B. J.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">2012<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">Cognitive mechanisms of treatment in depression. <span class=\"refjournal\">Ne<\/span>uropsychopharmacology<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1038\/npp.2011.183<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/npp.2011.183\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1038\/npp.2011.183\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-9\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-9-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-9-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-9-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cCognitive abnormalities are a core feature of depression, and bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-88531bdd-95a7-1cb8-6fff-c490596cd3b3\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es tow<\/span>ard negatively toned emotional information are common, but are they a cause or a consequence of depressive symptoms? here, we propose a \u2018cognitive neuropsychological\u2019 mode<span id=\"urn:enhancement-9e0c67c6-dd58-e249-4b73-515ddb7607b6\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">l of <\/span>depression, suggesting that negative information processing bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e532d689-b6c5-f583-2e53-9533d7e3604a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es hav<\/span>e a central caus<span id=\"urn:enhancement-fa5155e8-96eb-f2a9-26c8-e1eb77fc7503\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">al rol<\/span>e in the development of symptoms of depression, and that treatments exert their beneficial effects by abolishing these bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-708962d0-2bca-5966-cb34-584389487a6b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es. we<\/span> review the evid<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e0be2f04-87f2-3e69-a029-53703d55dc79\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ence per<\/span>taining to this mode<span id=\"urn:enhancement-75f6003d-c61c-bd31-12b7-9f71f665b017\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">l: br<\/span>iefly with respect to currently depressed patients, and in more detail with respect to individuals at risk for depression and the effects of antidepressant treatments. as well as being present in currently depressed individuals, negative bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-f3dd576f-9cdd-7a20-46d0-e35187748f32\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es are<\/span> detectable in those vulnerable for depression due to neuroticism, genetic risk, or previous depressive illness. rece<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d0edb3cb-9742-ddaa-c965-583bbc27c55c\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">nt evi<\/span>d<span id=\"urn:enhancement-16a9d1ca-5187-b37d-4857-fc9c3d534d6f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ence pro<\/span>vides strong support for the notion that both antidepressant drugs and psychological therapies modify negative bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-515f6e96-b4a4-c677-7e7a-d83caa2f3cfd\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es, pr<\/span>oviding a common mechanism for unde<span id=\"urn:enhancement-faa5efd1-9926-da7c-5e6b-3f4b0a57255a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">rstanding tre<\/span>atments for depression. intriguingly, it may even be possible to predict which patients will benefit most from which treatments on the basis of neural responses to negative stim<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e5b546e9-e3e3-d637-2b8d-e335b4d95d42\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">uli. ho<\/span>wever, further rese<span id=\"urn:enhancement-46b26afc-3aa5-1630-28db-2b272857e88a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">arch is <\/span>required to ascertain whether negative processing bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d1394772-9925-4e38-9d03-d2e74fdb8109\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es wil<\/span>l be useful in predicting, detecting, and treating depression, and hence in preventing a chronic, relapsing course of illness.\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Haselton, M. G., Nettle, D., &amp; Andrews, P. W.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">2015<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">The Evolution of Cognitive Bias. In<\/span> The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology<\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1002\/9780470939376.ch25<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/9780470939376.ch25\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1002\/9780470939376.ch25\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-10\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-10-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-10-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-10-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201c(From the book) in this chapter, martie haselton, daniel nettle, and paul andrews present theory and empirical research on the evolution of cognitive biases in social interaction. they provide sound argu<span id=\"urn:enhancement-cfa1a1ad-f39b-db7b-a5fa-466283a82e8a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ments tha<\/span>t certain social cognitive biases are in fact designed and functional, resulting in better solutions to adaptive problems than cognitive mechanisms that \u2018accurately\u2019 detected social signals. they call for an evolutionary reformulation of the entire \u2018heuristics and biases\u2019 literature, which typically cast humans as making illogical and unfounded errors. this new line of work has already led to the discovery of new cognitive biases and offers much promise for the future discovery of additional adaptive biases. it also may lead to the detumescence of decades of work that has cast humans erroneously as fundamentally irra<span id=\"urn:enhancement-c36a0601-5157-ffb4-29e5-c05cb03a44a7\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tional and<\/span> hopelessly muddled in their judg<span id=\"urn:enhancement-7b04643b-c6e3-e3ae-6099-c0bded6d9363\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ment and<\/span> decision making. (psycinfo database record (c) 2006 apa,\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Haselton, M. G., &amp; Nettle, D.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">2006<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">The paranoid optimist: An integrative evolutionary model of cognitive biases<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">Personality and Social Psychology Review<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1207\/s15327957pspr1001_3<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1207\/s15327957pspr1001_3\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1207\/s15327957pspr1001_3\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-11\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-11-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-11-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-11-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cHuman cognition is often bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-fdfc03cf-d054-7107-8f6e-871a4b954fed\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ed, fr<\/span>om judg<span id=\"urn:enhancement-132ed4f0-c6e5-8f6d-bd6e-b5e91e77c0dd\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ments of <\/span>the time of impact of approaching obje<span id=\"urn:enhancement-fabfae7d-47f9-7e49-3c9e-7d738db4f57a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">cts all<\/span> the way through to estimations of social outcomes in the future. we propose these effects and a host of others may all be understood from an evolutionary psychological perspective. in this article, we elaborate error management theory (emt; haselton &amp; buss, 2000). emt predicts that if judg<span id=\"urn:enhancement-7e970a29-9e27-62c1-f4d4-abc650af459f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ments are<\/span> made under uncertainty, and the costs of false positive and false negative errors have been asymmetric over evolutionary history, selection should have favored a bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-8f15984b-c716-0bbb-4b3e-84fcdd1eccbd\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> tow<\/span>ard making the least costly error. this perspective integrates a diverse array of effects under a single explanatory umbrella, and it yields new content-specific predictions.\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Croskerry, P.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">2003<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">The importance of cognitive errors in diagnosis and stra<span id=\"urn:enhancement-6e5f37b7-b772-e734-b617-8c8d11ac909c\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tegies to <\/span>minimize them<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">Acad<span id=\"urn:enhancement-5fdb9084-93b6-1e38-d248-46939697d5fe\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">emic Med<\/span>icine<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1097\/00001888-200308000-00003<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/00001888-200308000-00003\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1097\/00001888-200308000-00003\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-12\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-12-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-12-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-12-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cIn the area of patient safety, recent attention has focused on diag<span id=\"urn:enhancement-f9912b7b-e335-2920-263a-07b78f98b2de\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">nostic err<\/span>or. the reduction of diag<span id=\"urn:enhancement-9aabeb1b-0b53-491c-c3af-d56d472d6c70\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">nostic err<\/span>or is an important goal because of its asso<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e2d5ba52-bf66-9578-7ca3-6e666bf3cc37\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ciated mor<\/span>bidity and potential preventability. a critical subset of diag<span id=\"urn:enhancement-526a2a09-7be5-b712-b60e-6f6b74e50368\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">nostic err<\/span>ors arises through cognitive errors, especially those asso<span id=\"urn:enhancement-97b07935-1059-e663-10e2-5d32191ee6ff\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ciated wit<\/span>h failures in perception, failed heuristics, and bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-5c8bbe26-1b3d-5116-d825-daca6f8fd29a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es; co<\/span>llectively, these have been referred to as cognitive dispositions to respond (cdrs). historically, mode<span id=\"urn:enhancement-1027d108-2f1c-36fe-14c0-56029f7bb236\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ls of <\/span>decision-making have given insufficient attention to the contribution of such bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-6bbb4773-d76b-2aed-f58e-861df90b6e00\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es, an<\/span>d there has been a prevailing pessimism against improving cognitive performance through debiasing techniques. recent work has catalogued the major cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-f6026b6c-6d42-19af-2ff5-c1202f15e2d2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es in <\/span>medicine; the auth<span id=\"urn:enhancement-92ae2753-178c-797b-5af5-66c5167dba0c\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">or lis<\/span>ts these and describes a number of stra<span id=\"urn:enhancement-db094f2e-2ac9-c13e-dff5-7adc58fe830e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tegies for<\/span> reducing them (\u2018cognitive debiasing\u2019). principle among them is metacognition, a reflective approach to problem solving that involves stepping back from the immediate problem to examine and reflect on the thinking process. further rese<span id=\"urn:enhancement-5c259ab7-cafd-7942-768b-98239771abc1\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">arch eff<\/span>ort should be directed at a full and complete description and analysis of cdrs in the context of medicine and the development of techniques for avoiding their asso<span id=\"urn:enhancement-3790c818-3daf-1715-1c1f-695a355729e1\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ciated adv<\/span>erse outcomes. considerable potential exists for reducing cognitive diag<span id=\"urn:enhancement-fe604410-afff-d933-2554-d88d71cbc971\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">nostic err<\/span>ors with this approach. the auth<span id=\"urn:enhancement-f4c331ea-f0b7-c156-fa0d-9faf72bbb707\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">or pro<\/span>vides an extensive list of cdrs and a list of stra<span id=\"urn:enhancement-1e1c6184-c319-5e04-06c3-153e254446bb\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tegies to <\/span>reduce diag<span id=\"urn:enhancement-dc1e77bc-2e55-4178-5825-a172d56dd7d5\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">nostic err<\/span>ors.\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Bertrand, M., &amp; Morse, A.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">2011<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">Information Disclosure, Cognitive Biases, and Payday Borrowing<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">Journal of Finance<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111\/j.1540-6261.2011.01698.x<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1540-6261.2011.01698.x\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1111\/j.1540-6261.2011.01698.x\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-13\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-13-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-13-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-13-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cIf people face cognitive limitations or bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d5f15fbe-22b6-34aa-f7dd-5f8781d63924\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es tha<\/span>t lead to financial mistakes, what are possible ways lawmakers can help? one approach is to remove the option of the bad decision; another approach is to increase financial education such that individuals can reason through choices when they arise. a third, less discussed, approach is to mandate disclosure of information in a form that enables people to overcome limitations or bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-51ac8e6f-83ef-1270-f218-3905970b2e74\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es at <\/span>the point of the decision. this third approach is the topic of this paper. we study whether and what information can be disclosed to payday loan borrowers to lower their use of high-cost debt via a field expe<span id=\"urn:enhancement-c2c620e2-73ab-d774-c9b9-43394bbc8101\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">riment at <\/span>a national chain of payday lenders. we find that information that helps people think less narrowly (over time) about the cost of payday borrowing, and in particular information that reinforces the adding-up effect over pay cycles of the dollar fees incurred on a payday loan, reduces the take-up of payday loans by about 10 percent in a 4 month-window following exposure to the new information. overall, our results suggest that consumer information regulations based on a deeper unde<span id=\"urn:enhancement-cb9fd1bb-f09f-ccdc-6580-6ca519541f50\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">rstanding of <\/span>cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-09efb730-b060-391c-a2ee-33be0678b050\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es mig<\/span>ht be an effective policy tool when it comes to regulating payday borrowing, and possibly other financial and non-financial products.\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Ioannidis, J. P. A., Munaf\u00f2, M. R., Fusar-Poli, P., Nosek, B. A., &amp; David, S. P.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">2014<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">Publication and other reporting bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-24282db3-a063-997c-3f6a-86953b533de1\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es in <\/span>cognitive sciences: Detection, prevalence, and prevention<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">Trends in Cognitive Sciences<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016\/j.tics.2014.02.010<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tics.2014.02.010\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1016\/j.tics.2014.02.010\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-14\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-14-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-14-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-14-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cRecent systematic reviews and empirical evaluations of the cognitive sciences literature suggest that publication and other reporting bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-0f2d5eb5-7297-3c52-4d9b-8b41e31788fd\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es are<\/span> prevalent across diverse domains of cognitive science. in this review, we summarize the various forms of publication and reporting bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-1afc54f4-42ce-7cf5-fb66-a7ffbe13d1a2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es and<\/span> other questionable rese<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e973b58d-a3f7-7ec0-8593-30fc45b39dfa\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">arch pra<\/span>ctices, and overview the available methods for probing into their existence. we discuss the available empirical evidence for the presence of such bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-0a7c4573-7d9e-a125-7d8b-5c31fad18d71\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es acr<\/span>oss the neuroimaging, animal, other preclinical, psychological, clinical trials, and genetics literature in the cognitive sciences. we also highlight emerging solutions (from study design to data analyses and reporting) to prevent bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-876c9dba-9406-6843-9b93-d899e859af9a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> and<\/span> improve the fidelity in the field of cognitive science rese<span id=\"urn:enhancement-8a00d1c4-7dbc-da9c-e55b-d9181c7fb1ce\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">arch. \u00a9 <\/span>2014 elsevier ltd.\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Montibeller, G., &amp; von Winterfeldt, D.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">2015<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">Cognitive and Motivational Biases in Decision and Risk Analysis. <span class=\"refjournal\">Ri<\/span>sk Analysis<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111\/risa.12360<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/risa.12360\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1111\/risa.12360\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-15\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-15-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-15-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-15-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cBeha<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d179663f-5e6c-cc4c-be7c-3ec718d87e30\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">vioral dec<\/span>ision rese<span id=\"urn:enhancement-ac57ad37-be7a-ea6d-6b0c-e1b8c548355f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">arch has<\/span> demonstrated that judg<span id=\"urn:enhancement-7f33ab1f-3a98-c4cf-4638-6b559d322f5c\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ments and<\/span> decisions of ordinary people and experts are subject to numerous bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a33ec61e-4a53-62fb-06b8-dc79695afc1a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es. de<\/span>cision and risk<span id=\"urn:enhancement-66fc5f95-8221-b4b4-92be-1f20c6e38e5e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> analysis wer<\/span>e designed to improve judg<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d32e1b47-5ee0-2595-dc82-af5310a85803\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ments and<\/span> decisions and to overcome many of these bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-edec7e35-d1cd-5459-0f4b-d2811bd05c4a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es. ho<\/span>wever, when eliciting mode<span id=\"urn:enhancement-2bd70d4a-4175-a4b3-aa65-56ea96bfe037\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">l com<\/span>ponents and parameters from decisionmakers or experts, analysts often face the very bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-2adb4f00-de26-72e0-1ce9-e8a046ac7765\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es the<\/span>y are trying to help overcome. when these inputs are bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-81b3bd71-aa44-88a8-13b9-5bfa50da3a75\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ed the<\/span>y can seriously reduce the quality of the mode<span id=\"urn:enhancement-6fdfa8e9-f6fd-8451-7fea-fd5a90c9499b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">l and<\/span> resulting analysis. some of these bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-bf10e6e1-035e-bf72-49ce-e5074ef9eea8\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es are<\/span> due to faulty cognitive processes; some are due to motivations for preferred analysis outc<span id=\"urn:enhancement-7dde153f-16fd-c0b8-612b-120b13488432\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">omes. th<\/span>is article identifies the cognitive and motivational bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-7972f1a0-c5bc-49f2-b6f3-c43381adb691\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es tha<\/span>t are relevant for decision and risk<span id=\"urn:enhancement-996ca723-f835-e984-e2be-ca1ab06a4e2e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> analysis bec<\/span>ause they can distort analysis inputs and are difficult to correct. we also review and provide guidance about the existing debiasing techniques to overcome these bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-67597a11-ec39-b54d-1b68-86aa85a3647d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es. in<\/span> addition, we describe some bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d5ed50d5-898a-77be-a390-a5e4225e3293\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es tha<\/span>t are less relevant because they can be corrected by using logic or decomposing the elicitation task. we conclude the article with an agenda for future rese<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e3d4832c-ecc5-0a7a-c95a-a5f279325a2e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">arch.\u201d<\/span><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Douglas, C., Bateson, M., Walsh, C., B\u00e9du\u00e9, A., &amp; Edwards, S. A.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">2012<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">Environmental enrichment induces optimistic cognitive biases in pigs<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">Applied Animal Behaviour Science<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016\/j.applanim.2012.02.018<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.applanim.2012.02.018\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1016\/j.applanim.2012.02.018\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-16\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-16-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-16-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-16-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cThe objective assessment of affective (emotional) stat<span id=\"urn:enhancement-42edc6d3-b031-fe71-60e8-d613d2cc2999\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">e in <\/span>farm livestock, especially posi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-6d83e94a-e9a6-3960-e1b6-4a5adcea027e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tive sta<\/span>t<span id=\"urn:enhancement-b5eb759b-29e6-18af-f236-4a40ff8d9144\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es, po<\/span>ses a significant challenge. in human psychology, there is evidence that affective stat<span id=\"urn:enhancement-2022724c-42eb-36cf-2e2d-16219a4afe6f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">e can<\/span> alter cognition, with more posi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-90a19ade-a4b6-8f64-dbfe-1c1a85d011a9\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tive sta<\/span>t<span id=\"urn:enhancement-0c2b104f-88be-c31b-c24e-97dade63a663\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es bei<\/span>ng asso<span id=\"urn:enhancement-8ea985ed-db81-47fa-d659-4fa11e0946f1\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ciated wit<\/span>h an increased likelihood of judg<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a96e5f18-0cec-4b16-b115-4778672ecec2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ing amb<\/span>i<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d28a56db-c3f2-dbd3-abc3-394b4713e354\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">guous inf<\/span>ormation postively (a phenomenon described as optimistic cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a4e614ba-7662-8681-6f6d-1e141ba0d7c8\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">). t<\/span>he aim of this study was to investigate whether judg<span id=\"urn:enhancement-46dc6af4-ef7a-3fee-de29-ed011f98ccfa\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ement bia<\/span>ses could be used to assess affective stat<span id=\"urn:enhancement-dd2db580-0499-b99f-2843-f4dd7bc16b8a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es in <\/span>pigs housed in envi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-485eb2ac-1251-1a10-c190-733cc71267e6\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ronments wit<\/span>h different levels of enrichment. two grou<span id=\"urn:enhancement-449ad706-f1b6-d2de-dd7e-3bc3bb6a197d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ps of <\/span>five gilts were housed in either enriched (e) or barren (b) envi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-beb36ff0-6ad8-f8b0-a944-f6fd5c1cff87\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ronments for<\/span> the first five weeks of the expe<span id=\"urn:enhancement-99c34f96-d214-c6eb-c84d-a991947ddfff\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">riment. th<\/span>e enriched grou<span id=\"urn:enhancement-f061ba70-3284-4c48-486d-32d94f518a59\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">p had<\/span> more space, straw and obje<span id=\"urn:enhancement-50aae8f9-7a64-a3c6-6bed-8d3d283531a0\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">cts to <\/span>manipulate. the pigs were trained on a go\/no-go task to discriminate two auditory cues, a posi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-07c3e599-f501-b657-d160-3e0a5557c061\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tive cue<\/span> that predicted a food reward if the pig approached a hatch, and a negative cue that predicted a mildly aversive experience if the pig approached the same hatch. the quality of the pigs\u2019 envi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-b7ac7eef-f9f4-8bd7-dc34-eb766347e28e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ronment was<\/span> then changed over time in a balanced, cross-over design (either ebe or beb). tests of cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-4b14bc95-bc66-5374-d93d-3e08d0bbb28f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> wer<\/span>e made on individual pigs before and after each change in envi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-9366dd78-0354-8c74-b37c-58a9f2318804\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ronment usi<\/span>ng an unreinforced, ambi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-20ea4d31-28a2-7f49-00d3-7f385a641481\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">guous, au<\/span>ditory cue different from either the posi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a31ba6c7-b519-24cb-6353-f259f5bdef1a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tive or <\/span>the negative cue. in test sessions, posi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d5fc6b6b-c7c6-f901-cc5f-a111a4a0fe70\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tive, ne<\/span>gative and amibiguous cues were presented in a randomised sequ<span id=\"urn:enhancement-93862206-1697-1832-d5ea-2074d0826a34\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ence, an<\/span>d the pigs\u2019 responses (whether they approached the hatch and latency to approach) were recorded. both grou<span id=\"urn:enhancement-43c36eea-d83a-dc69-4f30-99a23bd83c7e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ps wer<\/span>e more likely to approach the hatch and were faster to approach the hatch in response to the ambi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-40f02dcc-0178-1242-db4e-898f2fd63ec3\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">guous cue<\/span> when currently housed in the enriched envi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-eeb29338-8e04-e2df-f296-c1628deafca2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ronment. th<\/span>ere was also an interaction between current and past envi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a7b780e0-914a-6269-1ab4-eefb1a05a2df\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ronment, wh<\/span>ereby pigs that started in the enriched envi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-50cd4332-6137-265a-bd67-e4608ac00757\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ronment wer<\/span>e subsequently less likely and slower to approach the hatch when moved to a barren envi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-4ab23f3b-a4bb-028d-310c-29173fc60603\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ronment tha<\/span>n pigs intially housed in the barren envi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e724206a-dba0-f7a9-1bbe-e1daa04af68e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ronment. th<\/span>ese results show that pigs have more optimistic judg<span id=\"urn:enhancement-3d73e147-56b1-574e-7906-eaf00f22b7a2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ement bia<\/span>s<span id=\"urn:enhancement-3ebe3656-1580-8e9f-9fef-9dd9155668f8\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es in <\/span>enriched environments indicative of a more posi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-1227a46e-f9f2-5250-a34f-17f88b6b0c7a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tive aff<\/span>ective stat<span id=\"urn:enhancement-db414605-cc9b-6bf7-e5ac-0a693c478117\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">e. al<\/span>so, pigs that have spent time in an enriched envi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-8df1d9c8-982a-3218-77f7-8dc3d8c7a4fe\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ronment rea<\/span>ct more negatively to being subsequently housed in a barren envi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d2b8fe4b-2378-1dc6-1424-88baa8c21518\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ronment. we<\/span> conclude that cognitive bias has potential to provide additional information about the effect of various management regimes on farmed animals\u2019 welfare. this will be increasingly important for identifying practices to promote posi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-5be2da55-f7e8-742a-927b-bf3b6b1cc0ac\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tive aff<\/span>ective stat\u2026\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Greenwald, A. G.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">1980<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">The totalitarian ego: Fabrication and revision of personal history<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">American Psychologist<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1037\/0003-066X.35.7.603<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0003-066X.35.7.603\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1037\/0003-066X.35.7.603\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-17\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-17-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-17-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-17-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cABSTRACT: this article argues that (a) ego, or self, is an orga<span id=\"urn:enhancement-f9abaf35-52b1-8d51-51d4-7665fee02859\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">nization of <\/span>know<span id=\"urn:enhancement-660db2e9-fae5-7a80-7592-94f22fe8182a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ledge, (b<\/span>) ego is characterized by cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-1e238feb-502b-2879-86c2-b50f62a925cb\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es str<\/span>ikingly analogous to totalitarian information-control stra<span id=\"urn:enhancement-aad4ec0c-8565-cfdb-98c3-bd8b96a91076\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tegies, an<\/span>d (c) these totalitarian-ego bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-889f077f-a833-507c-612d-9f53ccd0dbf7\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es jun<\/span>ction to pres<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d0c44f25-3420-4315-0c8e-6ba30988dfc9\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">erve org<\/span>a<span id=\"urn:enhancement-651df15e-f413-4237-37d1-c5b19bf06cf6\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">nization in <\/span>cognitive structures. ego\u2019s cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-8800eb60-a675-06fb-d1ce-e5a2ed7678b2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es are<\/span> egocentricity (self as the focus of know<span id=\"urn:enhancement-1f6d8d07-3b11-1e5e-a56f-09a0bdbbbf66\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ledge), \u2018<\/span>beneffectance\u2019 (perception of responsibility for desired, but not undesired, outcomes), and cognitive conservatism (resistance to cognitive change). in addition to being pervasively evident in recent studies of normal human cognition, these three bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e994a332-abc3-46cb-ba37-f30fb570aa4f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es are<\/span> found in actively functioning, higher level orga<span id=\"urn:enhancement-c2158d72-6e1c-c052-e009-6ff0a1f7ddb2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">nizations of <\/span>know<span id=\"urn:enhancement-85a1a3b2-153d-6e69-a71b-d3e2b8ca5b5d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ledge, pe<\/span>rhaps best exemplified by theoretical paradigms in science. the thesis that egocentricity, beneffectance, and conservatism act to pres<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e39c78fb-1455-65e8-3027-c704f8722407\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">erve kno<\/span>w<span id=\"urn:enhancement-87234e2e-081f-b95f-c52d-e238d0962424\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ledge org<\/span>a<span id=\"urn:enhancement-c5e9ac2a-a93f-12b5-98ec-7f5933bb2969\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">nizations lea<\/span>ds to the proposal of an intrapsychic analog of genetic evolution, which in turn provides an alternative to prevalent motivational and informational interpretations of cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-bc516445-8318-4506-9372-533cfe8bafa0\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es.\u201d<\/span><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Bateson, M., Desire, S., Gartside, S. E., &amp; Wright, G. A.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">2011<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">Agitated honeybees exhibit pess<span id=\"urn:enhancement-4b36312e-154e-a40f-ce4b-33098a00b1d9\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">imistic cog<\/span>nitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-ce64613d-04fe-d73f-3f78-94dadaded432\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">Cu<\/span>rrent Biology<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016\/j.cub.2011.05.017<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cub.2011.05.017\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1016\/j.cub.2011.05.017\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-18\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-18-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-18-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-18-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cWhether animals experience human-like emotions is controversial and of immense societal concern [1-3]. because animals cannot provide subjective reports of how they feel, emotional stat<span id=\"urn:enhancement-63dc0fb7-d796-6255-7e0c-fbe12bd208c4\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">e can<\/span> only be inferred using physiological, cognitive, and behavioral measures [4-8]. in humans, negative feelings are reliably correlated with pess<span id=\"urn:enhancement-dfb7bbf6-8f7f-8229-a4ac-a2f9fd8783c6\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">imistic cog<\/span>nitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-128de69e-8aa6-c8b0-e410-f98a7a7a0ea0\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es, de<\/span>fined as the increased expectation of bad outcomes [9-11]. recently, mammals [12-16] and birds [17-20] with poor welfare have also been found to display pess<span id=\"urn:enhancement-acbbfde9-7a07-f2dd-d92e-4e89d6759f90\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">imistic-lik<\/span>e decision making, but cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-9aab6bfd-19d2-7025-3563-27ea8ab1a28f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es hav<\/span>e not thus far been explored in invertebrates. here, we ask whether honeybees display a pess<span id=\"urn:enhancement-ac81312a-d65c-24c1-64db-0986ba4d6045\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">imistic cog<\/span>nitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-bf0e9421-ab98-0161-a114-b1a2890ebe52\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> whe<\/span>n they are subjected to an anxi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-95b4440f-298b-ca06-2b36-1aca27de9fed\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ety-lik<\/span>e stat<span id=\"urn:enhancement-2d869a0c-ac14-2bae-e1af-115f43af482f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">e ind<\/span>uced by vigorous shaking designed to simulate a predatory attack. we show for the first time that agitated bees are more likely to classify ambi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-066f0db9-28bf-86eb-2096-4007429da490\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">guous sti<\/span>m<span id=\"urn:enhancement-f0abe7d6-859a-b280-3e27-8b177bb24c2c\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">uli as <\/span>predicting punishment. shaken bees also have lower levels of hemolymph dopamine, octopamine, and serotonin. in demonstrating stat<span id=\"urn:enhancement-58ae6a2e-5cf8-abcd-dfb5-b331d7b2d34f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">e-dep<\/span>endent modulation of categorization in bees, and thereby a cognitive component of emotion, we show that the bees\u2019 response to a negatively valenced event has more in common with that of vertebrates than previously thought. this finding reinforces the use of cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-4a02a2de-cefd-0d60-0268-0b7ef7cc9d8d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> as <\/span>a measure of negative emotional states across species and suggests that honeybees could be regarded as exhibiting emotions. video abstract: \u00a9 2011 elsevier ltd.\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Peters, E. R., Moritz, S., Schwannauer, M., Wiseman, Z., Greenwood, K. E., Scott, J., \u2026 Garety, P. A.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">2014<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">Cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-49a05179-f4d6-23ba-b5da-725c718b8e75\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es que<\/span>stionnaire for psychosis<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">Schizophrenia Bulletin<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1093\/schbul\/sbs199<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/schbul\/sbs199\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1093\/schbul\/sbs199\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-19\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-19-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-19-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-19-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cObjective: the cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-5034c54c-40a1-8c7c-1928-3898b5f27904\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es que<\/span>stionnaire for psyc<span id=\"urn:enhancement-77bd719b-b359-82a0-7cda-f3ec7bb87306\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">hosis (cb<\/span>qp) was developed to capture 5 cognitive distortions (jumping to conclusions, intentionalising, cata-strophising, emotional reasoning, and dichotomous think-ing), which are considered important for the pathogenesis of psyc<span id=\"urn:enhancement-f8bf3c11-c6ee-cdce-7364-4c996befd43d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">hosis. vi<\/span>gnettes were adapted from the cognitive style test (cst), 1 relating to &#8221; anomalous perceptions &#8221; and &#8221; thre<span id=\"urn:enhancement-ec2f7957-1856-04cc-f2f7-119f20b88d15\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">atening eve<\/span>nts &#8221; themes. method: scale structure, reliability, and validity were investigated in a psy-chosis group, and cbqp scor<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d0ae56ec-1a4f-d0a9-7a38-c1ddf4c73aec\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es wer<\/span>e compared with those of depressed and healthy control samples. results: the cbqp showed good internal consistency and test-retest reliability. the 5 bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e32a4c57-ecc0-c893-b609-b3520c99ef96\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es wer<\/span>e not independent, with a 2-related factor scale providing the best fit. this structure suggests that the cbqp assesses a general thinking bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-8b6d8f2d-4f1c-056a-0976-067c5788abf2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> rat<\/span>her than distinct cognitive errors, while anomalous perception and thre<span id=\"urn:enhancement-de6ef709-6f74-a690-e9ed-f135c1d73bf8\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">atening eve<\/span>nts theme scor<span id=\"urn:enhancement-98c6239e-938e-16cf-3e6d-24b85cf5f37b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es can<\/span> be used separately. total cbqp scor<span id=\"urn:enhancement-f969ea53-7f34-2be8-7456-94ad974c2c7f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es sho<\/span>wed good conver-gent validity with the cst, but individual bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-29434a33-483e-e5be-9cb5-7d2e188b94c5\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es wer<\/span>e not related to existing tasks purporting to assess similar rea-soning bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-97794cb7-5713-1490-5340-b72dbf499ad3\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es. ps<\/span>yc<span id=\"urn:enhancement-1ff28af3-b8c7-e279-7863-4d5eb3134ff8\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">hotic and<\/span> depressed populations scored higher than healthy controls, and symptomatic psycho-sis patients scored higher than their nonsymptomatic counterparts, with modest relationships between cbqp scor<span id=\"urn:enhancement-3a136780-77ba-6773-9c3f-8d2e155a2d02\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es and<\/span> symptom severity once emotional disorders were partialled out. anomalous perception theme and intentionalising bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-aa472190-8864-4fdf-5be2-b71f4b214f73\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> sco<\/span>r<span id=\"urn:enhancement-faed06c7-17b9-c4fc-2e39-fe128f942938\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es sho<\/span>wed some spec<span id=\"urn:enhancement-c5d13c0a-7d56-07ef-78d7-f0fa149bf968\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ificity to <\/span>psyc<span id=\"urn:enhancement-1b325bb8-4c7f-e4f0-4428-e828def76f33\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">hosis. co<\/span>nclusions: overall, the cbqp has good psychometric properties, although it is likely that it mea-sures a different construct to existing tasks, tentatively suggested to represent a bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-095a817f-cdaa-d63b-d998-998be4f6a4aa\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> of <\/span>interpretation rather than reasoning, judg<span id=\"urn:enhancement-4ece8bde-981b-a9f7-4ad6-648c684e1f41\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ment or <\/span>decision-making processes. it is a potentially usef<span id=\"urn:enhancement-3c8140f6-a4ef-8fae-3712-be24c7f09d5e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ul too<\/span>l in both rese<span id=\"urn:enhancement-cb6c1a90-01a7-977e-1219-70b8b43436ae\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">arch and<\/span> clinical arenas.\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Hoppe, E. I., &amp; Kusterer, D. J.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">2011<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">Behavioral bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-9a3c766c-0d30-1496-e4aa-6b8952318a57\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es and<\/span> cognitive reflection<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">Economics Letters<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016\/j.econlet.2010.11.015<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.econlet.2010.11.015\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1016\/j.econlet.2010.11.015\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-20\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-20-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-20-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-20-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cIn a large-scale laboratory experiment, we investigate whether subjects\u2019 scores on the cognitive reflection test (crt) are related to their susceptibility to the base rate fallacy, the conservatism bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-dbc4ea34-a546-f6b4-81ab-b291fec36886\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">, ov<\/span>er<span id=\"urn:enhancement-5875fa39-cd06-f311-b083-81000d3c121a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">confidence, an<\/span>d the endowment effect. \u00a9 2010 elsevier b.v.\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Marshall, J. A. R., Trimmer, P. C., Houston, A. I., &amp; McNamara, J. M.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">2013<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">On evolutionary explanations of cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-1a7e5303-dd2c-01ea-f0e1-0aabe9ca3e37\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">Tr<\/span>ends in Ecology and Evolution<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016\/j.tree.2013.05.013<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tree.2013.05.013\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1016\/j.tree.2013.05.013\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-21\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-21-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-21-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-21-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cApparently irra<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e45ff3ab-5153-88af-fb52-4132973c7148\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tional bia<\/span>s<span id=\"urn:enhancement-9500853e-8dc0-cd8a-1abd-08c07a000409\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es suc<\/span>h as over<span id=\"urn:enhancement-7a16b621-ec24-63c5-e381-4d4d8373073d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">confidence, op<\/span>timism, and pess<span id=\"urn:enhancement-8e774ef0-e197-0ac9-5911-5a2fc1d35a8e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">imism are<\/span> increasingly studied by biologists, psychologists, and neuroscientists. functional explanations of such phenomena are essential; we argue that recent proposals, focused on benefits from overestimating the probability of success in conflicts or practising self-deception to better deceive others, are still lacking in crucial regards. attention must be paid to the difference between cognitive and outcome bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-473420c6-c462-c313-0624-30a5056da764\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es; ou<\/span>tcome bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a784cd74-f4a2-4520-e774-5a61c377326d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es are<\/span> suboptimal, yet cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-5f93dea8-845a-758a-0fb9-ec234b397981\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es can<\/span> be optimal. however, given that cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-95e07e5a-4d6f-84e9-ebd8-4d70db33e054\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es are<\/span> subjectively experienced by affected individuals, developing theory and collecting evidence on them poses challenges. an evolutionary theory of cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a0064b06-e9de-8ff0-3231-9a96e930047a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> mig<\/span>ht require closer integration of function and mechanism, analysing the evolution of constraints imposed by the mechanisms that determine behaviour. \u00a9 2013 elsevier ltd.\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Croskerry, P., Singhal, G., &amp; Mamede, S.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">2013<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">Cognitive debiasing 1: Origins of bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-8fdf2cbd-cd8b-1063-e78c-429d8c8c2533\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> and<\/span> theory of debiasing<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">BMJ Quality and Safety<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1136\/bmjqs-2012-001712<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmjqs-2012-001712\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1136\/bmjqs-2012-001712\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-22\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-22-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-22-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-22-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cNumerous studies have shown that diagnostic failure depends upon a variety of factors. psychological factors are fundamental in influencing the cognitive performance of the decision maker. in this first of two papers, we discuss the basics of reasoning and the dual process theory (dpt) of decision making. the general properties of the dpt mode<span id=\"urn:enhancement-9e87d7b6-ed1f-5677-ce63-c81e22238b6c\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">l, as<\/span> it applies to diagnostic reasoning, are reviewed. a variety of cognitive and affective bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-bd87be36-d205-c771-d556-1b2315f5cd38\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es are<\/span> known to compromise the decision-making process. they mostly appear to originate in the fast intuitive processes of type 1 that dominate (or drive) decision making. type 1 processes work well most of the time but they may open the door for bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-8664c5da-f919-3dc3-d520-e810b3d68e41\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es. re<\/span>moving or at least mitigating these bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-6cef2d15-deeb-ad7c-5fb8-431a67b0c24f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es wou<\/span>ld appear to be an important goal. we will also review the origins of bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-87e2213e-8745-4a44-ff76-ae56b0ff9c6f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es. th<\/span>e consensus is that there are two major sources: inna<span id=\"urn:enhancement-acbd3930-85df-77c6-ed3b-087c6fdbea7f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">te, ha<\/span>rd-wired bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-4e8d7d4d-cf62-14ea-27f2-2f8501d907b2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es tha<\/span>t developed in our evolutionary past, and acquired bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-5b067ab0-b6fb-9da9-225d-1ef7bf04fd0e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es est<\/span>ablished in the course of development and within our working environments. both are asso<span id=\"urn:enhancement-63dfc090-71f0-87d7-78a5-1b5df6191d8d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ciated wit<\/span>h abbreviated decision making in the form of heuristics. other work suggests that ambient and contextual factors may create high risk situations that dispose decision makers to particular bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-51721b5f-d8b6-26ad-aab0-71cfa999d386\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es. fa<\/span>tigue, sleep deprivation and cognitive overload appear to be important determinants. the theoretical basis of several approaches towards debiasing is then discussed. all share a common feature that involves a deliberate decoupling from type 1 intuitive processing and moving to type 2 analytical processing so that eventually unexamined intuitive judg<span id=\"urn:enhancement-1f9f5631-87c4-239b-a453-990add85923e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ments can<\/span> be submitted to verification. this decoupling step appears to be the critical feature of cognitive and affective debiasing.\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Das, T. K., &amp; Teng, B. S.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">1999<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">Cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-60c3a12f-33de-ead4-fdf3-f369664aee89\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es and<\/span> stra<span id=\"urn:enhancement-733a5a31-30b2-64d6-4aee-5c8a2c44fe0c\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tegic dec<\/span>ision processes: An integratwe perspective<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">Journal of Management Studies<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1111\/1467-6486.00157<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1467-6486.00157\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1111\/1467-6486.00157\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-23\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-23-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-23-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-23-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cPrevious studies have not adequately addressed the role of cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-0c1aa662-7401-8cb8-664c-221721896e97\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es in <\/span>stra<span id=\"urn:enhancement-8c5633b0-4770-5b22-fae0-c5c35dbda0ee\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tegic dec<\/span>ision processes. in this article we suggest that cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-7a91ab86-16b6-f1ed-47bc-a3132f6cc82a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es are<\/span> systematically asso<span id=\"urn:enhancement-46c8654e-c11f-275b-fd03-946aedca931e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ciated wit<\/span>h stra<span id=\"urn:enhancement-df00561e-efe0-374f-5d14-62fd9210e96a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tegic dec<\/span>ision processes. different decision processes tend to accentuate particular types of cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-7f23bc87-d69a-2260-58c2-14db568cd84f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">. we<\/span> develop an integrative framework to explore the presence of four basic types of cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-48f73424-7035-b006-778e-ac2a1bf924ec\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> und<\/span>er five different modes of decision making. the cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-bf4d05cb-328a-070a-1cce-0bb361954dda\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es inc<\/span>lude prior hypotheses and focusing on limited targets, exposure to limited alternatives, insensitivity to outcome prob<span id=\"urn:enhancement-c3f27f3d-c24e-0cdc-24c0-3d8b3ef2ec70\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">abilities and<\/span> illu<span id=\"urn:enhancement-67305b59-197f-98f9-f854-d000a985acbc\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">sion of <\/span>manageability. the five modes of stra<span id=\"urn:enhancement-0fb15bcb-052f-45b5-ae8a-7be68b2e8bd9\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tegic dec<\/span>ision making are rati<span id=\"urn:enhancement-4440d822-1786-0bad-9ce9-bc11af95b066\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">onal, av<\/span>oi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-84c88f68-04e7-8cd6-0a1c-7d1fb18addd9\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">dance, lo<\/span>gical incrementalist, political and garbage can. we suggest a number of key propositions to facilitate empirical testing of the various contingent relationships implicit in the framework. lastly, we discuss the implications of this framework for rese<span id=\"urn:enhancement-c84ed088-780c-6225-0e0b-b9f40647964d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">arch and<\/span> managerial practice.\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"csl-entry\">\n<div class=\"ref1\"><span class=\"refauthors\">Gudmundsson, S. V., &amp; Lechner, C.<\/span>. (<span class=\"refyear\">2013<\/span>). <span class=\"reftitle\">Cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-1f665a0f-c6fb-d5ef-d9c4-3717712618c3\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es, or<\/span>ga<span id=\"urn:enhancement-4ab0c96e-f776-b299-a367-cd5832eabcbf\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">nization, an<\/span>d entrepreneurial firm<span id=\"urn:enhancement-6426dffc-e860-9394-0b83-c3e4b7d20c53\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> sur<\/span>v<span id=\"urn:enhancement-9d580d64-fc7e-0208-c1c2-f96eb1b488bc\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ival<\/span>. <span class=\"refjournal\">Eu<\/span>ropean Management Journal<\/span><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"refnumericaldoi\">Plain numerical DOI: 10.1016\/j.emj.2013.01.001<\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiurl\"><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.emj.2013.01.001\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">DOI URL<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<span class=\"refdoiscihub\"><a href=\"https:\/\/sci-hub.tw\/10.1016\/j.emj.2013.01.001\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">directSciHub download<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<div id=\"accordion-24\" class=\"accordion no-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 role=\"button\" id=\"accordion-24-t1\" class=\"accordion-title js-accordion-controller\" aria-controls=\"accordion-24-c1\" aria-expanded=\"false\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\tShow\/hide publication abstract\t\t\t<\/h3>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div id=\"accordion-24-c1\" class=\"accordion-content\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\n<div class=\"refabstract\">\u201cEntrepreneur\u2019s cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d7ec4587-0b86-87ae-c98b-dfb3323e81ab\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es hav<\/span>e emerged as one of the central themes in unde<span id=\"urn:enhancement-b19df2e8-ad30-41ce-347c-54372e4029ea\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">rstanding the<\/span> performance of entrepreneurial firms. rese<span id=\"urn:enhancement-cabc8ec0-2243-be9e-76bd-7cd907035776\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">arch has<\/span> shown that entrepreneur\u2019s overconfidence and optimism bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-b4d7f019-934c-2d0e-8c6a-efead87d3e3d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> hel<\/span>p firm<span id=\"urn:enhancement-3b85643b-782e-63ae-c9b4-8386cf9e706a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> cre<\/span>ation, but also contribute to firm<span id=\"urn:enhancement-b406f1ed-cda4-f1f0-827c-b29696acf0ac\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> fai<\/span>lure. prior studies using cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a91afd8d-e83c-c4d7-326b-fe7b6964d8cc\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es to <\/span>explain entrepreneurial outcomes are lacking. first, they usually focus on a single cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-fbad6f16-ad63-d102-effb-7697f0962120\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">. se<\/span>cond, as yet no studies have identified a cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-41be41e1-4716-32fb-fb00-d90076fb3697\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> tha<\/span>t, unlike overconfidence and optimism, acts positively both on firm<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e0163af8-1a4f-165c-bf39-96631fb1cee7\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> cre<\/span>ation and surv<span id=\"urn:enhancement-57874bd2-aa92-85bd-a409-4d67383db164\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ival. in<\/span> rese<span id=\"urn:enhancement-3d58508b-1b55-079f-d1bb-f4e48a768c8b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">arch on <\/span>failure avoi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-571f6586-1ef5-344f-3c1e-cf9a176c8ae5\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">dance in <\/span>high consequence industries, distrust is emerging as an important cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-b534c783-3fa4-f50c-05b1-fede1556439a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> exp<\/span>l<span id=\"urn:enhancement-411af2d8-7cc9-ba24-af44-6cd9fd65516a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">aining non<\/span>-failure in non-routine situations, but entrepreneurship rese<span id=\"urn:enhancement-68501adc-befd-f306-9e38-25f92cf4e78d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">arch has<\/span> paid little attention to distrust in entrepreneurs. third, rese<span id=\"urn:enhancement-80d0ce81-9ccc-01af-b6f9-bc9136126016\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">arch on <\/span>cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-261390e8-9e7d-574b-537e-d50a5fbe3acf\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es is <\/span>generally affected by surv<span id=\"urn:enhancement-07d9dd6d-91aa-f3b6-7ecb-6fedc6a82948\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ival bia<\/span>s<span id=\"urn:enhancement-1a8ec461-78a9-0fca-14e7-de05719c8a3b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">: mo<\/span>st studies have focused on cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-daae8d1b-659d-0702-320d-051d60d9c529\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es amo<\/span>ng surviving firms alone, but we still know little about diverse multilevel impacts on both survivors and non-survivors. to address this gap, we built a multilevel mode<span id=\"urn:enhancement-fb43f443-32db-665d-663a-4ddf72a4603b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">l exp<\/span>l<span id=\"urn:enhancement-79199add-b728-bb06-cbc2-0023ecb3f67a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">aining the<\/span> interplay of cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-704324f6-e8ca-ff08-fe3e-2b44fad02cc2\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es, th<\/span>e different cognitive make-ups of entrepreneurs, and their influence on orga<span id=\"urn:enhancement-dc3a47c5-842c-6204-bdaa-a139aa30c62b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">nization and<\/span> surv<span id=\"urn:enhancement-af097dca-782a-8a63-8982-a3f3577a7c1e\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ival. ou<\/span>r results show that over<span id=\"urn:enhancement-130d4be6-117b-0c40-5e11-6cf9d0b6fe47\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">confidence is <\/span>the chief negative infl<span id=\"urn:enhancement-994b3eed-6167-f4af-dd7f-a87d0280643c\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">uence on <\/span>surv<span id=\"urn:enhancement-599192b5-a48a-fc2d-9f78-071c0e2f8e4d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ival. op<\/span>timism bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d7f9ba1b-dd3a-e576-c5cd-83432fa5fb8a\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> and<\/span> dist<span id=\"urn:enhancement-c3248cbd-2369-0d9d-4a67-76733bbdbada\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">rust are<\/span> conflicting cognitive bias<span id=\"urn:enhancement-67360f7b-0258-5b98-f457-a315dfac33dd\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">es inf<\/span>l<span id=\"urn:enhancement-e9bd6978-78cc-706d-3a8a-3321010d2a2b\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">uencing ove<\/span>r<span id=\"urn:enhancement-4f3622ef-80ab-d030-cd64-42309342c45f\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">confidence, bu<\/span>t showing a directly opposite infl<span id=\"urn:enhancement-f6263012-fbf3-dcbb-75fe-784bf6ea1a40\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">uence on <\/span>firm<span id=\"urn:enhancement-d4b9fff3-35da-930b-7231-194fbb24fbd1\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\"> sur<\/span>v<span id=\"urn:enhancement-84acd0f6-e2c5-ae03-2d15-e26f6ca0ce00\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">ival res<\/span>pectively. further, entrepreneur\u2019s cognitive types show diverse infl<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a032f90b-3970-da82-692b-f58cfbfe9e82\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">uence on <\/span>orga<span id=\"urn:enhancement-30e256dc-af42-4cd8-3640-c5324c246e5c\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">nization suc<\/span>h as the propensity to delegate and financial orientation, but congruent posi<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a6f16781-cc08-5394-5599-90d6a964f204\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">tive inf<\/span>l<span id=\"urn:enhancement-a73f0a42-0740-3c6d-93a6-ffc45418b973\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">uence on <\/span>opportunity orientation. the study concludes by suggesting that entrepreneurs should balance their orga<span id=\"urn:enhancement-2551bab5-06f9-4d5a-fbf5-7cc4a740d99d\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">nizations, fo<\/span>r instance through hiring policies, to prevent extreme over<span id=\"urn:enhancement-0b24c059-6ea3-e71d-d6e9-a7f2de948d98\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">confidence, op<\/span>timism or dist<span id=\"urn:enhancement-79013542-fc7d-26a6-9524-7036963544ae\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">rust bec<\/span>oming a predominant orga<span id=\"urn:enhancement-9d018936-6cce-b755-472f-4112cae99437\" class=\"textannotation disambiguated wl-thing\">nizational cul<\/span>ture. \u00a9 2013 elsevier ltd.\u201d<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<\/div>\n<\/div>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Click on the application to zoom and pan. You can use the mouse-wheel to navigate the image. Open a scrollable version of the application in full-screen modus Decision-making, belief, and behavioral biases Many of these biases affect belief formation, business and economic decisions, and human behavior in general. Name Description Ambiguity effect The tendency to [&hellip;]<\/p>","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":[],"categories":[1],"tags":[64,21,62,65,63],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"http:\/\/conspiracy-theories.eu\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/228"}],"collection":[{"href":"http:\/\/conspiracy-theories.eu\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"http:\/\/conspiracy-theories.eu\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/conspiracy-theories.eu\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/conspiracy-theories.eu\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=228"}],"version-history":[{"count":7,"href":"http:\/\/conspiracy-theories.eu\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/228\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":235,"href":"http:\/\/conspiracy-theories.eu\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/228\/revisions\/235"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"http:\/\/conspiracy-theories.eu\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=228"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/conspiracy-theories.eu\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=228"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/conspiracy-theories.eu\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=228"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}